Ancient Greeks: Theatre as Competition and Ritual

Ancient Greeks: Theatre as Competition and Ritual The ancient Greeks were the inventors of what is today known as â€Å"theater. † Beginning with religious ritual celebrations and competitions, they created an art form which has been parent to the modern theater, as well as television and film. Although the origins of Greek theater are unknown, it is believed that it grew out of the dithyramb, songs and dances honoring Dionysus held at a festival called the Dionysia (Theater of Ancient Greece). Although these uninhibited songs and dances probably grew out of ritual celebrations, they eventually became more formalized and symbolic, eventually evolving into the Greek theater (The Ancient Greek Theatre Page). Theater started as ritual fertility celebrations by the â€Å"Cult of Dionysus† in Athens. These rituals altered over time and became Spring ritual with theater at the center of the celebrations (Drama 30), although it is impossible to know how the rituals separated into comedy and tragedy (Greek Theatre). A lesser festival in honour of Dionysus, The Lenea, became another theater festival/competition halfway through the fifth century BC. The rules of the Lenea were different from those of the Dionysia. In the Lenea, there were only four tragedies, two from each of two playwrights, and five comedies from five playwrights (Greek and British Theatre). According to Aristotle's Poetics, Greek tragedy came before satyr plays and comedies. Tragedy came out of the dithyrambs sung in praise of Dionysus at the Dionysia every year. By the 600's BC, the dithyramb was changed into a formalized narrative sung by a chorus (Greek Theatre). Tragedy lost its Dionysiac associations very early, and only one of the preserved plays, Bacchae by Euripides, has any Dionysiac content, namely the myth of resistance to the introduction of Dionysus's cult to Thebes, and the god's revenge upon the city (Greek Tragedy). In the 500s BC, the poet, Thespis of Attica, is credited with creating a new style in which an actor, called the protagonist, performed the characters' speeches in the narrative, using masks to distinguish between the different characters. The actor spoke and acted as if he were the character, and he interacted with the chorus, who acted as narrators and commentators. Because of this, Thespis is considered the first Greek â€Å"actor,† and his style of drama became known as â€Å"tragedy,† which means ‘goat song,' possibly referring to goats sacrificed to Dionysus before performances, or to goat-skins worn by the performers (Ancient Greek Theater) Aeschylus introduced the antagonist, and Sophocles introduced a third actor. Plays with more realism and dialogue were written by Euripedes and Aristophanes (Drama 30). Theatrical presentations had a religious element and attendance was practically compulsory. Because of this, the builders of Greek theaters had to provide enough space for large audiences . It is believed that the theatrical representations could have arisen from the substitution of an animal for a human sacrifice and, eventually, the formula of the sacrifice was enacted ritualistically without the actual sacrifice of the animal (The Greek Theatre). Plays were produced which could be seen as a formalistic representation of human sacrifice. An example of one of these representational plays is Oedipus the King by Sophocles. In the play, Oedipus becomes the embodiment of suffering and guilt, serving as a way of cleansing the spectators (The Greek Theatre). By the fifth century BC, the theater had become a major part of the culture of Athens. The most important element of the annual Dionysia celebration was the play competition between three playwrights at the Theater of Dionysus. These playwrights each submitted a trilogy of connected tragedies, along with a satyr play which dealt with the same subject matter as the trio of tragedies (Greek Theatre). The competitors were chosen by a government authority called the archon. Wealthy patrons, called choregos, financed the productions. The funding of the arts was a way of tax avoidance, so they were willing to do so. In return for funding a production, the choregos would pay no taxes that year (The Ancient Greek Theatre Page). These men paid for the production of each dramatist's series, the chorus, and other production costs. The actors were paid by the state. The directors of the plays were usually the actual playwrights (Greek and British Theatre). Once many playwrights began writing plays for multiple actors and submitting plays for the Dionysia, competitions began to be held all over Greece. Prizes were given for the best of these and they were written down and saved (Greek and British Theatre). In the competitions, there were ten judges. These judges were taken from each of the Athenian â€Å"tribes,† divisions of the people made for administrative convenience, not actual tribes. Choosing the â€Å"best new tragedy,† which was the purpose for the competition, was taken very seriously. In 449 BC an award for the best leading actor in a tragedy was introduced (Greek and British Theatre). Revivals of popular plays was not allowed in Greek theater. This was to encourage new plays to be written. In fact, a special state decree was issued to allow the Aeschylus's plays to be performed after he died. Until this, revivals had never happened. Revivals did begin to occur in the fourth century when touring companies began to perform in Attica, a rural area, and beyond (Greek Theatre). The ancient Greeks took their theater seriously. Beginning with religious ritual celebrations, the Greek theater evolved into the modern theater that we know today. Plays from those ancient competitions are known and performed all over the world. The Greeks' contribution to the cultural and artistic development of the odern theater is incalculable. Works Cited â€Å"Ancient Greek Theater. † Greek Theater. 6 Oct 2008. . â€Å"Greek and British Theatre† The British Theatre Guide. 6 Oct 2008. â€Å"Greek Theatre. † Greek Theatre. 6 Oct 2008. . â€Å"Greek Tragedy. † Greek Tragedy. 6 Oct 2008.. â€Å"The Ancient Greek Theatre Page. † The Ancient Greek Drama and Theatre History Page. 30 Sep 2008. . â€Å"Theatre of Ancient Greece. † Ancient Greece. 30 Sep 2008. . â€Å"The Greek Theatre. † The Greek Theatre. 6 Oct 2008. â€Å"The Theatre in Ancient Greece. † Ancient Greece. 6 Oct 2008. â€Å"When Did Theatre Begin? † Drama 30. 6 Oct 2008..

Nick Names Formation in Lendang Nangka Sasak Menu-Mene Varity and Arabic Languages

NICK NAMES FORMATION IN LENDANG NANGKA SASAK MENU-MENE VARITY AND ARABIC LANGUAGES A Research Writting An NT Language and Culture Final Assignment Lecturer : Dr. Kamaludin Yusra By Samsul Bahri/12J012060/A ENGLISH EDUCATION GRADUATE PROGRAM MATARAM UNIVERSITY 2013 Acknowledgement I would like to express my gratefull and appreciation to my honourable lecturer Dr. Kamaludin Yusra, who would like to wait patiently for months for a word from me, then respond sympatically and constsructively within days. This assigment is written to accomplish a final task for Nusa Tenggara Languages Culture and Contact.I am interested to focus my study on Sasak varity nicknames formation as I found them important points to discuss to defining how nicknames in Sasak varity language are formed. So far I found it is hard to do this as the previous research for this merely. I tried hard to focus this research because lack of academic writting background knowledge and references. These are my become obstacles to do this research writting. But this first experience I hope will be my best teacher to do better in the future. I am afraid there are some mistakes in this simple research proposal, I do hope there will be some suggestions to make it better.Samsul Bahri CONTENTS Acknoledgementi Contentsii A. Introduction1 B. Research Questions3 C. Review of Literarture3 D. Research Methodology10 * Population10 * Sample11 * Data Collection11 * Data Analysis11 E. Discussion 11 F. Conclussion55 References Nick Names Formation in Lendang Nangka Sasak Menu-mene Varity and Arabic Languages Abstract This research paper discussed about nicknames formation in LendangNangka Sasak meno-mene dialect and Arabic nicnames. Most of sasak names are influenced by Arabic names as Islam is predominantly religion for Lendang Nangka village inhabitats.As names is identity of a person its has very strategic role for human being. Naming custom varies greatly from people to people. Terms relates personal names such as p ersonal name, family names, given names and Nick name. The nicknames formation in some cases similar to Arabic language. In Lendang Nangka Sasak meno-mene language. The meaning of Nicknames also has it own place in the dialect. A nickname is usually familiar or humorous but sometimes pointed or cruel name given to a person or place . Nicknames formations in the dialect through process of truncation (shortened), phonological process(replacing a stressed vowel and a onsonant), psychical characteristic and attributes. Nicknames also related to close friend and social solidarity. While in Arabic nicknames formation has its own way to form it. This research uses descriptive research methodology. The method used in this research is descriptive method. The goal of this research is to describe the formation, structure and meaning of the names in Lendang Nangka Sasak meno-mene varity language and Arabic. The population of this research the inhabitants of Lendang Nangka village. This reserac h studies about the personal names and nicknames. There are 6357 names.The data are gained from primary and secondary sources. Keywords: Sasak varity, Arabic, Personal Names, Nicknames, formation, truncation, phonological, Physical Characteristic, Lendang Nangka, menu-mene dialect. A. Introduction A name is inseparable circumstance to human being, place or thing. A name is a word or term used for identification. Names can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. A personal name identifies a specific unique and identifiable individual person. Though Indonesia is home to many diverse ethnic groups and languages.Those exaggerated the varies greatly between these groups in names. The dominant ethnic group is the Malay people (whose languages include Indonesian, Javanese). Generally, all Indonesians have one or more given names. Some ethnic groups also use a family name or clan name, other groups use a patronym. Some Indonesia ns have neither a family name nor a patronym. (Salahudin Ahmad,1999). Personal names are considered as important part for personal identity. Sasak people consider names has special meaning, and there is a special practise to do in naming new born baby as one of the life cycle in Sasak people.As predominantly religion, islamic naming system influences most of Sasak names. Islam is closely relate to arabic naming system although it is not totally influenced the Sasak names. Islamic naming system are used commonly in Sasak muslim good followers. Lendang Nangka village inhabitants are muslim. The inhabitants of Lendang Nangka village are consider as moderate muslim. This makes sense that naming system is not totally following Islamic naming system although many of the people in the villages use Arabic names such as Muhammad, Ahmad, Abdurrahman, Abdullah, Wahid, Syafi’i, Siti Aisah, Siti Hadijah, Mariam, etc. nd some others Arabic root terms such as Nurul Hayati, Nurul Aini, Laitu l Fitri which they considered as Islamic naming systems. On the other hand many personal names are influenced by non Arabic names, western, Hindus and Javanese, or by their own creation naming systems. And the last naming system is naming by local Sasak names (although there is no written rules about this but this is just based on the local story and information). Relate to the topic of this research a name in short form is called Nickname.According to Free Online Dictionary(2009): nickname is a descriptive name added to or replacing the actual name of a person, place, or thing. Where as The Wordsworth Concise English Dictionary(1988) defines Nickname as a name given in contempt or sportive familiarity. A nickname is â€Å"a usually familiar or humorous but sometimes pointed or cruel name given to a person or place† (Oxford Dictionary Online, 2012), as a supposedly appropriate replacement for or addition to the proper name†.Nicknames may based on a person's name or vari ous attributes such as (in majority the example taken from American names) : Tittle (â€Å"Bones† for a forensic scientist,†Doc† for a doctor ,†Sparky† for an electrician, Geek for a computer technician, â€Å"Sarge† for a military Sergeant, Moneybags for a wealthy person, Sir or Ma'am for a person of a higher rank); Physical characteristics (Weight: â€Å"Fatso† or â€Å"Slim† for a person who is overweight or thin, respectively. Height: â€Å"Beanpole† for a person who is tall, â€Å"Shortie† or â€Å"small-fry† for a short person. Haircolour: â€Å"Red†, â€Å"Ginger†, â€Å"Ranga†, or â€Å"Bluey† for a person with red hair. Blondie† a girl with blonde hair. Baldness: â€Å"Chrome dome† for a person whose scalp reflects the light. Complexion: â€Å"Pinky† for a person with Rosacea, â€Å"Zit† or â€Å"pizza-face† for severe acne, various racial s lurs for skin color. ; Personality (Talkative: â€Å"Motormouth†, â€Å"Chatterbox†, â€Å"Ratchet-Jaw†, â€Å"ChattyKathy† Cautious: â€Å"Nervous Nellie† Pessimistic: â€Å"Sad Sack† Negative: â€Å"Debbie Downer†, Glamorous: â€Å"Stunning Signe†, Boring: â€Å"Plain Jane†, Typical: â€Å"Average Joe†. This Research paper focuses on the analysis of nick names formation in Lendang Nangka Sasak meno-mene varity and Arabic languages.This topic is based on the personal names of Sasak and their relationship to Arabic personal names. As we know naming system in Sasak names are moslty influnce by religious aspects. So far I found that it an interesting topic to disscuss about nick names formation as it is merely found the academic writting of how the Sasak nick name are formed. I prefer to specify the Sasak menu mene varity as it is my origin language and it is interesting to relate the naming system with Arabic as bo th of them uses mostly use Arabic personal names as the inhabitants considered Islam belivers.B. Research Question * What are the naming systems in Sasak meno-mene varity and Arabic language? * What are the meaning of Lendang Nangka Sasak Meno-mene varity and Arabic personal names? * How are Arabic and Lendang Nangka Sasak meno-mene varity nicknames formed? * Does Arabic nicknames formations contribute to Lendang Nangka Sasak nicknames formations? C. Review of Literature According to Merriam-Webster (2012) name is Word or phrase that constitutes the distinctive designation of a person or thing . By a name we can identify each other.In general term, a name is a label for a noun – a person, place or thing. Naming customs vary greatly from people to people. Some names carry information about our roots, such as family or clan names, which are generally inherited. Terms relates personal names such as personal name ,family names, given names and Nick name. In some cases they are ve ry simple, such as those of many Indonesians names who use just a single name. On the other hand, names could also be very complex such traditional Chinese (Wikipedia, 2007).A given name, in Western contexts often referred to as a first name, is a personal name that specifies and differentiates between members of a group of individuals, especially in a family, all of whose members usually share the same family name or surname. Arabic names were historically based on a long naming system; most Arabs did not simply have given/middle/family names, but a full chain of names. This system was in use throughout the Arab world. The given name is always followed by the father's first name, then the father's family surname. Example Name Muhammad ibn Saeed ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Filasteeni. Wikipedia, 2007). The study of personal names has attracted a number of scholars over the years. There are many views regarding the way in which personal names are bestowed. This section aims to provide a overv iew of what previous scholars have found as far as personal naming is concerned. Scholars such as Koopman (1986; 1989), Thipa (1983; 1987), Herbert (1990; 1995), Saarelma-Maunumaa (1996; 1999), Stayt (1931), Monnig (1967), Mbiti (1969), Moyo (1996), Kimeyi (1989), Dickens (1985) and Bosch and De Klerk (1995) have based their discussions on some of the personal naming patterns.As far as African traditional culture is concerned, the selection of personal names is influenced by many factors. Most of these factors are diverse among cultures; nevertheless, there are some areas where they overlap. Jayaraman (2005: 176) provides the following explanation of the Hindu tradition of personal naming practices: a name not only reveals a person’s self-identity, but also his or her cultural, sectarian, varna, and caste identities. Further, it is believed to signal one’s spiritual worth not only in this world, but also in the next.In everyday life, Hindus give great significance to a personal name. As this study on Tshiven? a names will reveal, the naming ceremony of a child is an important event. It is also traditionally one of the major life circle rituals for a Hindu. In Southern India, it is usually performed on the twelfth day of a child’s life. Customarily, some Hindus, who believe that even days are lucky for girls and uneven ones lucky for boys, hold that a boy should be named on the eleventh day and a girl on the twelfth.When the ceremony is to occur, and mainly in the case of the first child, both the father’s and the mother’s relatives visit the house where the mother gave birth (usually her natal home). Here, the guests are entertained with traditional sweets specially prepared for the occasion. There are various considerations in the choice of a name. However, one essential element in the selection of a name in all parts of India is the birth star of a person. Most Hindus consult an astrologer to decide the appropriate name.In the south, as in other parts of India, names may tell of the joy and expectations of parents of newborn children. For example, if a child is born to a couple many years after marriage, he may be endearingly named after some precious metal or gem, such as Ratnam (diamond), Sona (gold), Banghru (gold) or Muthu (pearl). Naming may also be related to other family experiences. For example, in Tamilnadu, if a family has experienced high child mortality, a surviving child may be named Pichi (gift of god) if male, or Pichiamma if female. Elements of idiosyncrasy and creativity are also apparent in Indian naming customs.For example, an eminent professor of Telugu in Andhra Pradesh gave his daughter one of the longest names encountered: Sri Arunachala Kadambavana Sundari Prasunnamba Kanyaka (the blessed virgin who is beautiful and carries with her the radiance of sunshine, the fragrance of garden flowers, and the presence of God). Bean (1980:309), in his research on the bestowal of childrenâ €™s names, found that it is often the duty of the parents, but may also be the duty of a senior kinsman or of a ritual specialist, and the participation of members of a larger community is also required ( e. . Ga names are bestowed by the senior patriarchal relatives). Bean’s (1980) view that the role of the ritual forms part of a child’s acceptance into his family group, is in a way similar to views given by other scholars such as Mbiti (1967), Monnig (1967), Koopman (1989) and Stayt (1931) on the role of the rituals that accompany name-giving ceremonies. Andrei A. Avram paper looks into the structural properties of Japanese and English truncated names. Name truncation is considered to be a word-formation process and is analyzed from the perspective of Prosodic Morphology.Japanese and English truncated names are shown to be subject to strict prosodic requirements. Also discussed is the relation between name truncation and prosodic minimality in the two languages. Abigail study the ways in which truncation in Indonesian enriches our understanding of possible patterns of prosodic morphology and the nature of prosodic word requirements. The structure of the paper is first describe the patterns of truncation in Indonesian. He consider the question of word minimality and evidence for word minimality based on the stress facts of Indonesian.He describe and consider the implications of two classes of subminimal words in Indonesian, including a class of words containing schwa and the short forms of terms of address and personal names. Both of these classes of words highlight the fact that word well-formedness and word minimality may be violable properties. He return to the question of truncation as prosodic morphology and briefly consider the Indonesian facts in light of recent theoretical claims about the nature of truncation. Langendonck (2008) made a nice survey to prove the universality of sources of surnames.Accordingly, they are derived roughly from the same sources across linguistically and culturally unrelated languages. For instance, in the English speaking countries, most surnames of British origin fall into several types: occupations (eg Smith, Baker), personal characteristics (eg Short, Brown), geographical features (eg Hill, Lee) place names (eg Flint, Hamilton) patronymicsii(eg Richardson, Johnson) matronymics (eg Marriott from Mary) and paternal, from patronage (eg Hickman meaning Hick's man). In French, people are named, following the same traditions: Legrand( the tall), le Carpentier (carpenter), le Parisien(from Paris).The same sources of surnames are true of the Spanish-speaking countries: Delgado (thin), Molinero(miller), Aleman from (Germany). In Russian, one finds the same: Tolstoy (fat or stout), Portnov (tailor),Moskova (from Moscow). Romanians follow the same procedures in deriving their surnames: Barbu(bushy bearded), Fieraru(Smith), Munteanu(from the mountains) Moldoveanu(from Moldova). In Netherlands , the Dutch adopt the same path in forming theirs : De Groot(the great), Van Weert( of the city Weert) (ibid). During the pre-Islamic period and onward, Arabs used to follow certain traditions in choosing their personal names.Roughly, the same traditions have been followed in modern Arabic dialects. In classical Arabiciv, some names were chosen by tribes for various reasons: (1) to threaten their enemies (eg Muqatil: fighter, Ghalib: winner, Asad: lion) (2) to express their optimism of their sons (eg Sa6yd: happy, Malik: owner, Najy: rescued) (3) to involve the sense of roughness of land or trees (eg :al a : thorny tree, hajar: stone) or (4) the newly born child is named depending on what his father comes across while the child's mother is being in labour.For instance, if the father meets a fox, the child will be named accordingly: Thalaba. The same holds true of dog: kalib, crow: Ghurab (Ibin Duraid, d. 321H ,nd:5f) (see also Altha’aliby, d. 430 H, 2007: 406f) Ibin Qutaybah( d. 276 H, 1999:67) adds that some people's names are taken from names of plants(eg alqamah: colocynth) others from people's characteristics or attributes(eg al-kareem: generous, al-shuja6: brave). In the Arabian Peninsula, females were named as males. This is attributed to the fact that the tribal societies at that time need e seen greater in number by others so that they would think a lot before invading each other. After the rise of Islam, the tradition of naming persons by the use of plants' or animals' names went on; and other factors for naming had become involved. For instance, beautiful names were chosen (al-Rabii: Spring) and got widely spread due to the Prophet's position against the choice of ugly names. He (P. B. W. H) recommended that parents should select beautiful names that bring happiness and satisfaction to newly born children.In surveying the traditions that Arabs followed in naming persons during the pre- and post-Islamic period, one finds that the same traditions have been roughly adopted by modern Arabic native speakers (Murad, 1984:36, 46). Al-Samaray (1961:4) adheres to a rather distinct view in that classical Arabic is no longer the variety spoken all over the Arab homeland i. e. different Arabic colloquial dialects are in use. This has had its impact on the way the PNs are used or chosen in every Arabic speaking country (see 2. 2. 1 below). However, Al-Samaray (p. ) does not state that the traditional ways of naming became totally absent(see 2. 2. 2 below). Ulaiq (2001:12ff) further indicates that PNs in SA and modern Arabic dialects are attributed to: 1. Natural phenomena (eg Qamar; the moon, kawkab: planet, Hilal; Crescent) 2. The sequential order of the newborn child which has sometimes a part to play in naming him or her(eg Faryd; the unique, Walyd; the alone, Rabia; the fourth). 3. Well-known or outstanding figures such as poets, heroes, wise men, presidents, artists or leaders (e. g Siina; Avicenna; Saladdiin, AbdulNasir). . Gran dfathers' or grandmothers' names to glorify them specially the eldest son. 5. Harmony of the names so as to be of the same musical tone of the family members (eg Ranny, Rajjy, Wally, Haddy). 6. Particular occasions or events(eg Ramadhan: the fasting month, Najjah; success, Zilzal: earthquake) 7. The fear of envy in that ugly names are attributed to infants (as some people believe) to keep them away from being envied. Nevertheless, this tradition has become of a very minor role to play due to the spread of education and knowledge in the Arab homeland.Sasak is a Western Malayo-Polynesian language spoken on the island of Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat province in eastern Indonesia (Austin, 2000, 2001). It is closely related to Samawa (spoken on the western half of Sumbawa Island to the east of Lombok) and Balinese, and sub-groups with them as a member of the Western-Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian . Relate to this research, the study of Sasak language has been done by many resear chers, but in the other hand the study about Sasak nicknames is very hard to find.Acoodring to Austin (2000, 2001) Sasak language shows a wide range of local dialect variation in lexicon and syntax, which is the topic of ongoing investigation. There is also sociolectal variation with high, middle and low speech styles (Nothofer, 2000). Data for this paper is drawn from the Central and Southern varieties identified by their speakers as Meno-Mene, Meriaq-Meriku and Menu-Meni Sasak. As predominantly Islam believer Sasak and Arab people they mostly based their naming system on Islamic principles.The fact that this is the right of the father is shown by the principle that the child is ascribed and attributed to the father, as Allaah says, â€Å"Call them (adopted sons) by (the names of) their fathers, that is more just in the Sight of Allaah†. It is also allowed for the parents to allow others to name the child, since our Prophet (SAW) used to name some of the children of his Comp anions. The name should carry a good and praiseworthy meaning as the Messenger (SAW) said, â€Å"On the Day of Resurrection, you will be called by your names and your fathers names, so make your names good. (Abu Dawood) It is recommended to call oneself a servant of Allaah (Abdullaah) or the servant of any of the names of Allaah. Then it is recommended to name a child after a prophet, due to the hadeeth, â€Å"call yourselves by the names of the Prophets† (Abu Dawood) and the hadeeth, â€Å"a son was born to me this night and I called him after my forefather Ibraaheem† (Muslim) Then it is recommended to name the child after any pious person in the hope that it will become like him/her. Then it is recommended to name by any name which has good meaning.It is forbidden to name a child with a name that denote servitude to other than Allaah, for example Abd an-Nabi, Abd ar-Rasool etc, just as it is forbidden to name them with names that are particular to the Unbelievers li ke George, Michael, Susan etc. The names of tyrants and evil personalities should be avoided such as Fir'awn, Qaroon, Abu Lahab etc.. Likewise it is disliked to name with the names of the Surahs of the Qur'aan like ‘Taa Haa' or ‘Yaa Seen' as is reported from Imaam Maalik and others. There is no authentic hadeeth which ascribes the above two as being names of the Prophet (SAW).As the influencing of globalization era, naming sytem also influences Lendang Nangka Sasak naming system. It is very common to find personal naming influnced by western names such, Heri from Harry, Linda, Tina, Sandi etc. More examples of differents names are presented in appendixes and in next discussion. D. Research Methodology This research uses descriptive research methodology. The method used in this research is descriptive method. The goal of this research is to describe the formation, structure and meaning of the names in Lendang Nangka Sasak meno-mene varity language and Arabic.A similar vi ew is expressed by Djaya Sudarma (2006:16). He said that this method is a descriptive overview of the characteristics of the data accurately in accordance with the nature of the data itself. The statement was supported by Sudaryanto Djayasudarma (1993:62) who argued that the descriptive method focused on giving a full overview on the actual state of the object under investigation. This study also used qualitative approach. this study is also related to research data that is not in the form of numbers, but in the form of words or phrases (Sudaryanto, 1993:62).Sudaryanto opinion is supported by Arikunto (1998:193) who states that qualitative research is a desecriptive research because this study attempted to describe the data with the words or phrases that are separated by categories to obtain conclusions. Based on the explanation above, the writer can say that the research is descriptive qualitative research means is intended to provide a clear picture of the process of the formation , structure and phrase user names Lendang Nangka Sasak menu- mene varity * Population The population of this research is the inhabitants of Lendang Nangka village.Relates to the topic of this research the total names of the subject are 6357 names of Lendang Nangka inhabitants personal names. * Sample From total 6357 names there one hundreds personal names are taken as sample. Those samples are catagorized as first 100 hundred the most popular names in Lendang Nangka village * Data Collection There are two sources of data collection : Primary and secondary data. The primary data are obtained directly from local people of Lendang Nangka village by questioning to the paticipants and observation. Secondary Data source are taken from monography of local village office.Data source are in the form list of names local inhabitants. The number of the is 6357 personal names in the village (appendix†¦ ). Those total names will be group into the group of similarities of each names(appendix †¦ ). * Data Analisys. After all data are obtained the next step is to analize the data. Analysis is an effort to study and process the data to find out the conclussion. Each group will be analized based on their formation and the form of the names, and their originals. All data are put into some cataogries: 1. Their similarities pharase and sylabble 2. Base 3.Ending word or prosodic 4. Meaning After all data are determined to their group. The next step is to analyse the process of each names become nicknames based on phenomena and observation. After all data collected , the next process is sorting names into their catagory using spread sheet Ms-Office Excell 2007 sorting system. For further analysis will be discussed in disscussion part . E. Disscussion The topic of this discussion will focus on the study of Lendang Nangka Sasak menu-mene varity names while on the other hand Arabic names disscus in not too deep discussion and analyis.The discussion will also be based on some t heories and names. 1. Names Generally a name is a label for a noun – a person, place or thing. More specifically a name is a label for a specific person, place or thing. These are sometimes called proper names. A name is a word or term used for identification. Names can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. According to Merriam-Webster(2012) name is Word or phrase that constitutes the distinctive designation of a person or thing . By a name we can identify each other.In general term, a name is a label for a noun – a person, place or thing. : look at the following examples: | Person| * Heri * Megawati Sukarno Putri * Harun Al-Rasyid * Lalu Serinata * TGH. Muhammad Zainul Majdi| Name —– Noun| Thing| * Meja (Table) * Harimau (Tiger) * Lendang Nangka | | Place| * Hotel * Lombok Sumbawa * Lendang Nangka * Bima| 2. Personal names Relate to personal names, naming customs vary greatly from people to people. Some names carry information about our roots, such as family or clan names, which are generally inherited.Terms relates personal names such as personal name , family names, given names and Nick name. In some cases they are very simple, such as those of many Indonesians names who use just a single name. On the other hand, names could also be very complex such traditional Chinese(Wikipedia, 2007). A given name, in Western contexts often referred to as a first name, is a personal name that specifies and differentiates between members of a group of individuals, especially in a family, all of whose members usually share the same family name or surname.Arabic names were historically based on a long naming system; most Arabs did not simply have given/middle/family names, but a full chain of names. This system was in use throughout the Arab world. The given name is always followed by the father's first name, then the father's family surname. Example Name Muhammad ibn Saeed ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Filasteeni. Sasak people naming system is considered as simple naming system such Muhammmad Amin, Aminah, Hadijah, Amir Mas’ud, Samsul Bahri. The names mostly influences by Arabic names or words as most Sasak people are moslem.While in Greek using more complete name as follows: personal name(s) + patronymic + family name e. g. a son whose father’s name was Georgios might be called Spyros Georgiou Kyprianos same as in Bulgarian names: personal name(s) + patronymic + family. e. g. Emil Petrov Christov (Wikipedia, 2007). A modern Chinese usually has (1) a surname (â€Å"family name†) or xing and (2) a given name (â€Å"first name† or â€Å"Christian name†), or ming (or mingzi ), always in that order. Thus Deng Xiaoping is Mr. Deng with the personal name Xiaoping the same way John Jones is Mr.Jones with the personal name John. (Lelia, 1961). 3. Sasak language, personal names and origins a. Sasak language. The Sasak language is spoken on the island of Lombok (immediately east of Bali) by around 2. 5 million speakers (roughly 85% of the population of Lombok, which was recorded as 2,950,105 in 2005. It shows great internal variation, both geographical and social, with a complex linguistic ecology (Austin 2003) Sasak has traditionally been classified into five dialects: meno mene, ngeno-ngene, meriyaq-meriku, kuto-kute, and nggeto-nggete.However, this classification does not seem to accommodate the reality of the actual variation existing in Sasak, because there are also other dialects such as menu-meni and menung-mening. For instance, menu-meni speakers do not always agree to be in the category of meno-mene speakers, although the reason for this is hard to tell (Mahyuni, 2007). As Mahyuni stated that menu-meni speakers do not always agree to be in the category of ngeno-ngene speakers. I preassumed, The sasak language which the people in Lendang Nangka (Where I live) east Lombok may categorized as meno-meni speakers even t hough located in the region of ngeno-ngene dialect.Despite of category by A. Teeuw. In circumstance of geographic location, Lendang Nangka is surrounded by ngeno-ngene dialect speakers such, Jurit village in the east, Danger village in the south, Sangiang in the west and Borok Lelet in the north. Based on historical information, the inhabitants’ anchestor of Lendang Nangka were from the area of district Kopang Central Lombok (where as it is considered as menu-mene dialect speakers). b. Sasak personal Names In fact, Sasak do not generally use the Western naming practice of a given first name and a family last name nor arabic system which is consist of full chain of names.In general, the form Sasak personal names fall into the following categories: * A single name: Sahnep, Mahrap, Mahyan, Marep, Serinata, Sahnun, Sapnah, Riadah, Muhammad, Ahmad, Abdullah, Lasmi, Sintiawati, Kartika, Indra, Subawae, etc. * Two (or more) names without a family name: Muhammad Safi’i, Siti A minah, Safaril Ahyak, Yusran Ahmadi, Samsul Hadi, Laelatul Fitri. * Names for documentary system (marital certificate, passport, birth certificate): This category is based on Indonesian formal rule. A name following by father’s name: Sahudin bin Muhammad (M), Fitriah binti Sahidun (F). Names based on the first child ( After a spouse has their first child bornt). Amaq/mamiq Sahudin (First child name is Sahudin, while Amaq means father so meaning The father of Sahudin). While the wife could be Inaq/Meme Sahudin (Inaq means mother so meaning the mother of Sahudin. In fact the of the father has his own personal name Abdurrahman or the mother’s personal name Aminah. * Noble personal name Lalu is added before a male personal name, such as: Lalu Suparlan, Lalu Serinate. Baiq is added before female personal name, such as: Baiq Hikmah, Baiq Mustiare. c. Origin of Sasak names.There is not specific informations about the original Sasak Names in spite of the fact that some of Sasa k names are not found in other language names (Sahnep, Mahrep, Segep, Sinarep, Senep, Sahne, Amsiah, Rumlah, Sene, Selihan, Mahnan, Serinate (? ). The following description of the origin of Sasak names which are based on the language, culture and religious influences: * Arabic word derived names Since Islam is the main religion for Sasak people , it is veryobviously to find Arabic first names as personal names in Sasak names such as Abdullah, Abdurrahman, Siti Aminah, Siti Hadijah. * Sanskrit derived namesAs the influenced of former ruler of Balinese in Lombok we will find some similarities in Sasak and Balinese such as in language and culture. Sanskrit derived names-names that may sound Hindu-influenced such as Indra, Bayu, Surya, Wisnu, Rama, , Bima, Dewi, Sri, Laksmi, Saraswati, Sintawati, etc. * Popular and Honored person Names Sasak people also use personal names following popular names taken honored person such as names of former presidents (Sukarno, Suharto, Megawati, Habibi) , celebrity names (Desi Ratnasari, Rano Karno, Herman Felani, Anjasmara), sport champions names (Alan Budi kusuma, Verawaty, Rudi Hartono). Etc. * Western namesDue to the influence of Western popular culture and celebrities, many non- Sasaksalso have shortened Western names like Sandy, Ricky, Alan, Meri (Marry), Linda, Amanda, Cindy,Heri (Harry), Meri (Marry), Sintia (Chintia) etc. The names can be found through Sasak family in suburb even in rural community. * Parents own Creation names. Some parents created their child names with their own idea and meaning. Such as persons who were born in certain times . Juliawati for a person who was born in July, Agustina in August, Oktaviana in October, Ramadani in Ramadhan month, Laelatul Fitri in the night before Iedl Fitri day, Purnawati in full moon night. . Lendang Nangka Sasak Meno-mene varity 100 Top names. So far there is no specific rules in Sasak naming sytem. Since most of Sasak people are muslim naming system is much closely relate d to Arabic names, although it is not totally follow the personal naming system for Arab people. Sasak personal names are similar to most Indonesian moslem names although some names appear as they are influences by western and Hindus names. Some other names are created by parents own creation which they based on other peoples names, time, place, nature, plants or thing they considered good names.The top 100 hundred names of 6357 names mostly used in Lendang Nangka Sasak village as shown in the following table: Table. 1. Top 100 names in Lendang Nangka Sasak Meno-mene varity No. | NAMES| Total names| %| No. | NAMES| Total names| %| 1| SAMSUL (+ †¦. )| 37| 0. 58| 51| anti| 11| 0. 17| 2| Abdullah (+†¦ )| 34| 0. 53| 52| DIAN| 11| 0. 17| 3| SUMIATI| 29| 0. 46| 53| HAERIAH| 11| 0. 17| 4| JUMAKYAH| 27| 0. 42| 54| HARNI| 11| 0. 17| 5| JUNAIDI| 25| 0. 39| 55| LINA| 11| 0. 17| 6| MULIANI| 23| 0. 36| 56| MARIANI| 11| 0. 17| 7| SAPRI| 22| 0. 35| 57| NURUL AENI| 11| 0. 17| 8| Agus+| 20 | 0. 31| 58| RIPAAH| 11| 0. 7| 9| ahmad+| 20| 0. 31| 59| SAMSUDIN| 11| 0. 17| 10| ERNA( +)| 20| 0. 31| 60| SENIWATI| 11| 0. 17| 11| LIA| 20| 0. 31| 61| SUPRIADI| 11| 0. 17| 12| Aisah| 19| 0. 30| 62| ZAKIAH| 11| 0. 17| 13| RIZAL| 19| 0. 30| 63| Adi| 10| 0. 16| 14| SRI ASMAWATI+| 19| 0. 30| 64| ana| 10| 0. 16| 15| MULIADI| 18| 0. 28| 65| HAERUNI| 10| 0. 16| 16| NURHASANAH| 18| 0. 28| 66| HENDRI| 10| 0. 16| 17| HAMDIAH| 17| 0. 27| 67| HERI| 10| 0. 16| 18| IRWAN| 17| 0. 27| 68| HERIANTO| 10| 0. 16| 19| ROHANI| 17| 0. 27| 69| HERMAN| 10| 0. 16| 20| EKA| 16| 0. 25| 70| JULIANA| 10| 0. 16| 21| HAERANI| 16| 0. 25| 71| LIANA| 10| 0. 16| 2| NURHAYATI| 16| 0. 25| 72| MAHYUNI| 10| 0. 16| 23| ROZI| 16| 0. 25| 73| MAWARDI| 10| 0. 16| 24| Aminah| 15| 0. 24| 74| PAJRI| 10| 0. 16| 25| At| 15| 0. 24| 75| PATIMAH| 10| 0. 16| 326| IDA| 15| 0. 24| 76| RONI| 10| 0. 16| 27| MAHNUN| 15| 0. 24| 77| ROSIDI| 10| 0. 16| 28| NURUL +| 15| 0. 24| 78| SALMIAH| 10| 0. 16| 29| SAPIAH| 15| 0. 24| 79| SUHAILI| 10| 0. 16| 30| SURIANI| 15| 0. 24| 80| YANTI| 10| 0. 16| 31| Ani| 14| 0. 22| 81| YULIANI| 10| 0. 16| 32| NUR| 14| 0. 22| 82| ZAKRAH| 10| 0. 16| 33| NURAENI| 14| 0. 22| 83| Ahyar | 9| 0. 14| 34| YULIANA| 14| 0. 22| 84| andri+| 9| 0. 14| 35| Andi| 13| 0. 0| 85| ari| 9| 0. 14| 36| JUMARTI| 13| 0. 20| 86| DEDI| 9| 0. 14| 37| RINA| 13| 0. 20| 87| IWAN| 9| 0. 14| 38| Anah| 12| 0. 19| 88| MAHINUN| 9| 0. 14| 39| DEWI| 12| 0. 19| 89| NURUL| 9| 0. 14| 40| DIANA| 12| 0. 19| 90| PENDI| 9| 0. 14| 41| EDI| 12| 0. 19| 91| RIANAH| 9| 0. 14| 42| ELI| 12| 0. 19| 92| RIKA| 9| 0. 14| 43| HAMDI| 12| 0. 19| 93| SAHNUN| 9| 0. 14| 44| JOHAERIAH| 12| 0. 19| 94| SITI+| 9| 0. 14| 45| LINDA| 12| 0. 19| 95| SUMARNI| 9| 0. 14| 46| MARNI| 12| 0. 19| 96| SUPARDI| 9| 0. 14| 47| MULIANA| 12| 0. 19| 97| US| 9| 0. 14| 48| PADLI| 12| 0. 19| 98| anto| 8| 0. 13| 49| RENI| 12| 0. 19| 99| AYU| 8| 0. 3| 50| SAPRUDIN| 12| 0. 19| 100| HALIMAH| 8| 0. 13| |   |   |   |   | OTHERS|   | 79. 05| The following table data is to d escribe the use of Arabic names Abdullah which is popular as Arabic name, the total number of inhabitants using Abdullah first names is 36 people: e. Other popular form of Lendang Nangka Sasak Meno-mene varity. From the analysis of the data it is found that many of Sasak personal names characteristic has similar final sylables such as ,-udin, -ni, -di, -man, -ti, -ah, -na, -wan. The following are data show names with the characteristic above: * Names with final sylable u–din Names with final sylable di * Names with final sylable –man * Names with end sylable –na * Names with end sylable –run * Names with end sylable – wan * Names with end sylable -un * Names with end sylable –to and – no * Names with end sylable –ah By observing the data above mostly naming system in Sasak meno-mene are very simple and it is tend to have similar names by using similar final sylables. 4. Arabic names, meaning and origins Arabic names were histor ically based on a long naming system; most Arabs did not simply have given/middle/family names, but a full chain of names.This system was in use throughout the Arab world. The given name is always followed by the father's first name, then the father's family surname. Some surnames have a pre-fix of ibn- meaning son of (ould- in Mauritania) The surnames follow similar rules defining a relation to a clan, family, place etc. Some Arab countries have differences due to historic rule by the Ottoman Empire or due to being a different minority. For example : * Muhammad ibn Saeed ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Filasteeni Ism – Muhammad (Proper name). Muhammad: praised. Nasab – Saeed (Father's name). Saeed: happy Nasab – Abd al-Aziz (Grandfather's name).Abd al-Aziz: Servant of the Magnificient. Nisbah – al-Filasteenee (The Palestinian). Filasteen: Palestine. Muhammad Saeed, son of Abdul-Aziz, the Palestinian This person would simply be referred to as â€Å"Muhammad† or by relating him to his first-born son, e. g. :†Abu Kareem† (father of Kareem). To signify respect or to specify which Muhammad one is speaking about, the name could be lengthened to the extent necessary or desired. During the pre-Islamic period and onward, Arabs used to follow certain traditions in choosing their personal names. Roughly, the same traditions have been followed in modern Arabic dialects.In classical Arabiciv, some names were chosen by tribes for various reasons: (1) to threaten their enemies (eg Muqatil: fighter, Ghalib: winner, Asad: lion) (2) to express their optimism of their sons (eg Sa6yd: happy, Malik: owner, Najy: rescued) (3) to involve the sense of roughness of land or trees (eg ala : thorny tree,hajar: stone) or (4) the newly born child is named depending on what his father comes across while the child's mother is being in labour. For instance, if the father meets a fox, the child will be named accordingly: Thalaba. The same holds true of dog: k alib, crow: Ghurab (Ibin Duraid, d. 21H ,nd:5f) Ibin Qutaybah(d. 276 H,1999:67) adds that some people's names are taken from names of plants(eg alqamah: colocynth) others from people's characteristics or attributes(eg al-kareem: generous, al-shuja: brave). In the Arabian Peninsula, females were named as males. This is attributed to the fact that the tribal societies at that time need be seen greater in number by others so that they would think a lot before invading each other. After the rise of Islam, the tradition of naming persons by the use of plants' or animals' names went on; and other factors for naming had become involved.For instance, beautiful names were chosen (al-Rabii: Spring) and got widely spread due to the Prophet's position against the choice of ugly names. He (P. B. W. H) recommended that parents should select beautiful names that bring happiness and satisfaction to newly born children. In surveying the traditions that Arabs followed in naming persons during the pre - and post-Islamic period, one finds that the same traditions have been roughly adopted by modern Arabic native speakers (Murad, 1984:36, 46). Al-Samaray (1961:4) adheres to a rather distinct view in that classical Arabic is no longer the variety spoken all over the Arab homeland i. . different Arabic colloquial dialects are in use. This has had its impact on the way the PNs are used or chosen in every Arabic speaking country (see 2. 2. 1 below). However, Al-Samaray (p. 5) does not state that the traditional ways of naming became totally absent(see 2. 2. 2 10 below). Ulaiq (2001:12ff) further indicates that personal names in SA and modern Arabic dialects are attributed to: 1. Natural phenomena (eg Qamar; the moon, kawkab: planet, Hilal; crescent) 2. The sequential order of the newborn child which has sometimes a part to play in naming him or her(eg Faryd; the unique, Wayd; the alone, Rabia; the fourth). . Well-known or outstanding figures such as poets, heroes, wise men, presidents, artists or leaders (eg Siina; Avicenna; Saladdiin, AbdulNasir). 4. Grandfathers' or grandmothers' names to glorify them specially the eldest son. 5. Harmony of the names so as to be of the same musical tone of the family members (eg Ranny, Rajjy, Wally, Haddy). 6. Particular occasions or events(eg Ramadhan: the fasting month, Najjah; success, Zilzal: earthquake) 7. The fear of envy in that ugly names are attributed to infants (as some people believe) to keep them away from being envied.Nevertheless, this tradition has become of a very minor role to play due to the spread of education and knowledge in the Arab homeland. 5. Nicknames According to Oxford Dictionary A nickname is â€Å"a usually familiar or humorous but sometimes pointed or cruel name given to a person or place, as a supposedly appropriate replacement for or addition to the proper name, or a name similar in origin and pronunciation from the original name. A nickname is sometimes considered desirable, symbolising a for m of acceptance, but can often be a form of ridicule. Nicknames in Sasak language relates to definition above is quiet similar in function and meaning.The topic disscussion in this research relates to Nicknames formation in Lendang Nangka Sasak meno mene varity comparing to nick names formation in Arabic. This topic become the main discussion because most of Lendang Nangka inhabitants personal names are influenced by Arabic naming system. 5. 1. Nicknames formation. As the main focus on this response paper, nicknames formation is based on Lendang Nangka Sasak meno-mene varity. Nicknames formation in Sasak meno-mene varity in LendangNangka has some characteristics: 5. 2. Truncation the given names Truncation means to shorten by or as if by cutting off. The free dictionary online) 5. 2. 1. Truncate the base name by separate back part of base name as illustrated below: Base namenickname (truncated) – Gunilahilok – Haeriahiok – Sinarepayep – Sadahadok Nickname s (Truncated names) shows tendency to begin with a consonant and end with consonant, even their base starts with a consonant and end with a consonant. While the others following nicknames(truncated) names tend to begin with a consonant and ends with a consonant even the base names starts with a vowel and ends with a consonant: Base namenickname – Aminahminok – Andipendot – Aguscegos – Akramkeram – Amircemor – Amingemong Abdillahdilok – Ahmad gamek 5. 2. 2. Truncate the primary stressed syllable of the names as follows: Base namesNicknames (truncated names) – At’harhar – Rukiahkiah/kiok – Sakdahdah/dok – Samsulsul -SamsudinSam 5. 2. 3. Truncate the secondary stressed syllable of the names as in the following example: Base namesNicknames (truncated names) – Samsudinudin – Tarminimini – Hamdandan – Jumlahlah/lok 5. 2. 4. Truncate names on the segmental of onset consonants rep lace randomly: Base namesNicknames (truncated names) – SakdahCedok – MuhamadGamek – SirCing – HasimTacim – MahrepGayep 5. 2. 5. Phonological Process. Stressed vowels occasionally change /a:/ into /o/ as follows : Base namenickname -Abdillahdilok -Samsiahsiok -Aminahinok -Rukiahkiok * Changing stressed vowel /a:/ into // ? Base name Nicknames -SatriawanAwen -SuparmanMamen -JarkasiKejer -SunardiSuner -AhmadAmek -JumakyahJume’ * Changing stressed vowel /i/ into /o/ as follows: Base name Nicknames -Mulyandiendot – Mulianieno’ – Muliaticetot – Santisentot – Samsul Hadiedot * Consonants may also be subject to change. /s/ is replaced by /c/ in middle position: Base name nick name -NasirAcing -HasanAcan Muhasimacim -Muhsankucan -MuhsinKucin -LusianiUci -HasanahCanok -MahsunAcun * /r/ is replaced by /? / at the close position Base name Nicknames -Munirning -Tahira’ing -Zakiraking -JaharAhang -MunawarAweng * / r/ is replaced by /y/ in the mid position Base name Nicknames -Idrusyus -Zakrahayah/ayok -Mustarahgayek -Mahrupayup -Mahrapayap -Mehrameyam -Sahrumayum -Sahuriuyi * /k/ is replaced by /h/ at the close position Base name Nicknames -ZakrahAyok – Hasanahcanok – Riadahadok – Sakdahcedok – Ramdahmendok – Sakdiahdiok – Abdillahdilok – Darmilahilok Sapirahirok – Jumlahjlok * /b/ is replaced by /p/ at the close position Base namenickname -Zaenabjenap – Assegabsegep – Mustajabajap – Rajabajap – Habibabip * /z/ is replaced by /j/ at the onset position Base namenickname – ZaenabJenap – Zulkarnainkejung – Zaenuddinjen – Zarkasikejer – Zulkiplijul * /l/ is replaced by /ng/ at the close position Base name nickname -Samsulancung – Sulhiahcung – Mulianahmung – Yulianiyung * /f/ is replaced by /p/ at the random position Base name nickname – Gafarapar â₠¬â€œ Irfanipan – Sarifayip – Mussannifsanip – Halifalip 5. 2. 6.Nicknames also formed by dropping a consonant in random position, as described below: Base name nickname -Ehsanesan -Irfanipan -Ilhamiham -Ahsipasip -Mahsanasan 5. 2. 7. Nicknames formation also made by giving attributes to specific person such as following: – Kaktuan is for a person who has done hajj for example: Base namenicknames -Hajjah Kurniawatikak tuan kur -Haji Abdillahkak tuan dilok -Hajjah Samsiahkak tuan iok * Tuaq(uncle) and inaqrari (aunt) is to address someone feel close related to the speaker even he is not a relative of the speaker, as following example: Base namenicknames Salehtuaq aleh -Zaenuddintuaq jen -Syamsiahinaq rari iok -Rumlahinaq rari melok * Semeton/meton/ton (brother/sister) usually refers to male is to address between friends at same age and to show friendliness, even though they are not relatives in between and usually meton or ton is stand alone without nicknam es. * Arik/adik (younger brother/sister)usually refers to male is to address to younger person and to show friendliness, even though they are not relatives in between and usually arik or adik is stand alone without nicknames. Kakak/akakArik/adik (older brother/sister) usually refers to male/female is to address to younger person and to show friendliness, even though they are not relatives in between and usually kakakor kak is stand alone without nicknames. * Amaq keke /bapak keke(father) usually refers to male is to address to elder married person and to show friendliness, even though they are not relatives in between and often amaq keke or bapak keke is stand alone without nicknames to show closer feeling. Inaq keke (mother) usually refers to address to elder married person and to show friendliness, even though they are not relatives in between and usually arik or adik is stand alone without nicknames. without to show closer feeling. 5. 2. 8. Nicknames also formed by physical chara cteristic and personality such as: -â€Å"Dakoh† for a person who is overweight -â€Å"keyek† for a person who is thin,. -â€Å"ranjo or belo† for a person who is tall, -â€Å"cendek or dendek/dandak† for short person. -â€Å"Bijang†, â€Å"ambok† for a person with blonde hair and grey hair respectively. â€Å"butak† for a person with bald head. -â€Å"melong† is for big eyes person. -â€Å"bireng† for a person with dark skin, -â€Å"bodak† for a person with white skin. ; Personality; -â€Å"nyerenceng† is for talkative person, -â€Å"beleke†, is for a person who laugh a lot -â€Å"kembo’†is for easy crying person – â€Å"bingis† for high tempered person. 6. Nick Names in Arabic. According to Zawaedah : Studying nicknames relates to Arab world is important for national security because they are used as aliases. Instead of using one’s real name, one may use a nicknam e to hide their identity.A term for such usage is â€Å"nom de guerre† (i. e. war name). Resistance fighters, terrorists, and guerilla fighters use pseudonyms to hide their identities and protect themselves and their families from harm. A nickname is a name that identifies a person, place, or event that is different from the formal given name of the referent. Nicknames are often not legally registered in one’s official documents. Examples: Muammar Qathafi: Al? Akh al? Aqid ‘Brother Colonel’ Amin al? qawmiyyah al? Arabiyyah: ‘Keeper of Arab Nationalism’ Sahib al? Kitab al? Akhdar : ‘Owner of the Green Book’Zuwaedah stated that Studying nicknames is important for national security because they are used as aliases. Instead of using one’s real name, one may use a nickname to hide their identity. A term for such usage is â€Å"nom de guerre† (i. e. war name). Resistance fighters, terrorists, and guerilla fighters use pseu donyms to hide their identities and protect themselves and their families from harm. Understanding the pseudonyms used by radical groups sheds light on their future intentions, perceptions, motivations, and connection to the cause. (Guidere, 2006).Abu Hamza al-Muhajir (Abu Ayyub Al-Misri) : chief of Al-Qaeda in Iraq. Hamza Ibn Abd Al? Muttalib: Prophet Mohammad’s uncle. One of the bravest protectors of Islam. Muhajir: he immigrated to Iraq to fight. Or it could refer to â€Å"hijra†of companions of Mohammad from Mecca to Medina. In Arab world nicknames are used for : * Friendly daily conversations (face to face, on the phone, letters, e- mails, etc). Used for endearment or respect. * Monarchs may be known by other nicknames. * ‘Nabaz’ nicknames used to insult others (ex. Enemies), or used in the formation of swear words. Concealing identity: * Computer users: Chartrooms, e? mails, blogs, used asâ€Å"usernames†. * Literary pen names –publishi ng authors. * Stage names (ism shuhra)? actors, singers, dancers, etc. * Criminals, terrorists, etc (takhallus) –especially the leaders have pseudonyms. 7. Types of Arabic nicknames 1. Asma’ Dal’ Hypocoristics 2. Kunya Abu X 3. Nasab Ibn X patronymics 4. Laqab description 5. Nisba origin of person 6. Nabaz insulting names 1. Asma’ Dal Hypocoristics Arabic hypocoristic formation is very generative. Generation is largely based on the root of the name (Zawaydeh and Davis, 1999). Khalid† has the following Jordanian and Egyptian nicknames: * Khalluuude * Khalkuleeh * Khaluudi * Khalluuude * Khukhu * Khalkhul * Dido * Khokha When a full name has an affixal consonant, be it a prefix, suffix, or infix, the affixal consonant does not appear in the hypocoristic. Hypocoristic contains only root consonants, regardless of what other consonants may be in the name. * MuhammadHammud * AhmadHammud * HamidHammud 2. Kunya In the Arab tradition, after a person gets mar ried and has a child, s/he is called by the name of his eldest son (or daughter). Abu Muhammad ‘father of Muhammad’ * Um Muhammad ‘mother of Muhammad’ Highly used in the Arab World, and Muslims in general (ex: Afghanistan, Pakistan). Some Kunyas are metaphorical. The second word uses a positive or negative attribute. * Abu Al? Khayr‘father of goodness’ * Abu Dhubab‘father of flies’ Not every Abu X is just a nickname. It could be also a surname. Ex. Palestinian surnames: * Abu Hadeeda‘father of iron’ * Abu Minshaar‘father of a saw’ * Abu Sham’a‘father of a candle’ Used daily as an honorific to show respect to elders. Used by young men to address each other, for fun.Even one who is not married, or doesn’t have a son may be called Abu X. As a â€Å"nom de guerre†. For example, â€Å"Abu† nicknames were popular among PLO leaders. * YasirArafat Abu Ammar * MahmoudAbbasAb u Mazen A terrorist may be known by a Kunya name. in India, the nickname â€Å"Abu Al? Qama†was used by a member of the terrorist group Lashkar? e? Taiba in the Mumbai terror attacks 3. Nasab Nasab is a patronymic or a metronymic name. The word â€Å"Ibn† or â€Å"bint† (i. e. son/ daughter of) followed by the father’s name. Was used more frequently as an alias in historic times.The person was known as â€Å"son of X† instead of his first name. A chain of names reflects one’s genealogical ancestors. Example: * Ibn Khaldoun —- : Abd ar? Rahmanibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibnal? Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Abd ar? Rahman ibn Khaldun. Nasab .. current usage It is a standard way of reporting names in Saudi Arabia, and the Arabian Gulf. The head of the House of Saud:Muhammad bin Saud bin Muhammad bin Muqrinbin Murkhanbin Ibrahim bin Musa bin Rabi’abin Mani’bin Rabi’aal? MuraydiAl ? Dur’aal? banafiAl?Adnani Used online as alias names. Next word could be a colloquial or MSA adjective, a noun, a person’s name, or a place name. * Ibn Falastine‘son of Palestine’ * Ibn Hajar‘son of a stone’ 4. Laqab This is a description of the person, that could be considered a title of nobility. It is often a two-word phrase, which often indicates the person’s occupation, importance, or appearance. Originally, it was used as a nickname, and later adopted to be a title given to important people. * Sayfal? Din ‘The sword of the religion’ * Nasiral? Dawla‘the helper of the dynasty’ * Al? Jahiz‘the goggle? eyed’A physical or personal quality. The phrase could be metaphorical. These could also be used as surnames. Al? Tawil‘the tall one’(could be a surname) Al? Andalibal? Asmar‘the dark nightingale’(Singer Abd Al? HalimHafiz) * Expressing adoration or reliance on God, or li neage to the Prophet. Some use compound structures with words such as â€Å"Allah†, â€Å"Abd†, â€Å"al-Din†, â€Å"al-Islam†, â€Å"al-Dawlah†, or words used in titles: * Al? Ra’is Al? Mu’min‘the faithful president’Anwar Al? Sadat * Amir Al? Mu’minin‘prince of the believers’HusniMubarak * Sayfal? Islam‘sword of Islam’Osama Bin Laden 5. NisbaAn adjective derived from the place of origin, birth, residence, or occupation. It could be also a clan, tribe, or family. Formed by adding –iyy/-iy at the end of the word. Usually preceded by al- definite article. This form is also used for surnames. * Abu Ayyubal? Misri (from Egypt) * Salahal? Din Al? Ayyoubi (founder of Ayyoubi dynasty – conquered crusaders) * Al? Ansari: fighters born in Iraq (Ansaral? Sunna group) * This type of structure is used frequently to coin new surname aliases. 6. Nabaz Nabaz could be metaphors that are used to describe somebody that is disliked or considered to be an enemy. Jihadi style writings use such metaphors abundantly. Comparing the process of nicknames formation in Sasak meno-mene varity and Arabic, both process in nicknames formation in general it is quite different. The process of formation nicknames basis in Arabic is basis those six basis. This basis is not common in Sasak meno-mene varity. F. Conclussion From the discussion we can conclude as follows: * Personal names in Lendang Sasak meno-mene varity mostly influenced by Arabic word and names. * Arabic names and Sasak names has similarities relates to Islamic way system of naming based on the hadist. There is no special rules in Sasak meno-mene varity in forming nick names compare to Arabic nicknames which on those 6 basis. * Most of Sasak nicknames formation are not influenced by Arabic nicknames formation. Sasak Personal names * Muhammad (personal names) become Amek (Nickname) While in Arabic names: * Muhammad (persona l names) becaome Hammuud (Nickname). * The similarity in nicknames formation is in the Arab tradition, after a person gets married and has a child, s/he is called by the name of his eldest son (or daughter). * Abu Muhammad ‘father of Muhammad’ Um Muhammad ‘mother of Muhammad’ While in Sasak tradition after a person get married he / she is called by his ledest son (or daughter) * Amaq Udin â€Å"father of Udin† * Inaq Udin â€Å" mother of Udin† * Mamiq Bambang â€Å" father of Bambang† * Meme Santi â€Å" mother of Santi† * Based on my onservation and analysis I found that the nicknames formation in Lendang Nangka nicknames varity are based on Truncation of personal names, phonological changing process, physical characteristic, attributions in term of social solidarity, friendliness and intimate. BiblographyIbin Duraid(d. 321H,n. d)Al-Ishtiqaq(Derivation). Revised by AbdulSalam Harron. Cairo: Al-Khanachy Publishing House. Ibin Qu taybah (d. 267H. 1999) Adeb Al-Katib( The Writer's Literature). Beirut: Al-Resalah Publishers. Jaszezolt, K. M. (2002) Semantics and Pragmatics: Meaning in Language and Discourse. London: Longman. John and Levitt, J. (1975) â€Å"People Have Names† in Wallace, A. & Stageberg, N. (eds. ) Introductory Readings on Language. New York: Rinehart and Winston. pp146-154. Dictionary of Islamic Terms. Damascus: Dar Al-Yamamah. Langendock,V. 2008) Theory and Typology of Proper Names. http //www. degruyter. de/cont/. Retrived on 17th of January 2008. Murad, A. K. ( 1984) Asma? Al-Nass: Ma anyha wa ASbab Al-Tasmiah Biha( People's Names: Their Meanings and Reasons of Naming by them). Vol. I. Baghdad: Dar Al-Huriah for Printing. Nina(2008) A Survey of the History of English Place Names. http //www. sca. org. Retrieved on 19th of February 2008. Pollock,J. L. (1982) Language and Thought. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Al-Samaray, I. (1961)†Al-alam†(Proper Names) in Journa l of Faculty of Arts Vol. III.Baghdad University. pp3 -18. AlTha aliby,A. A. (d. 430H. 2007)Fiqih Al-lUghah wa Sirru Al-rabiah(Language Philology and the Secret of Arabic). Beirut: DarAl-Ma’rifah. Ulaiq,B. M. (2001)Al-Wafy fi Al-asma? Al-arabiah wa Ma6anyha( The Complete Text in Arabic Personal Names and their Meanings). Beirut: Dar Al-amra?. Ullmann,S. (1962)Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. Oxford. Basil Blackwell. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Nickname. Accesed on :11/1/2012 7:25:30 PM http://oxforddictionaries. com/definition/english/nickname. 2012 Oxford University Press.

A view from a bridge work book Essay Example for Free

A view from a bridge work book Essay ? Dear Miss Fisher, I have finished reading a view from a bridge & put notes on the power point sheets however I then looked back on it & realised it was illegible! So I wrote it up here, is that ok I’m sorry for the inconvenience, & it won’t happen again. Sorry again, Daisy 🙂 A view from the bridge. 15th September. Research tasks: Who was Arthur Miller? Find autobiographical information about the playwright. Arthur Miller, playwright from New York, became a journalist, worked with Italian immigrants during WWII. Which gave him an outlook Into the Sicilian dreams & inspiration for â€Å"A View From The Bridge. † Miller’s first play flopped, but his second; â€Å"All My Sons† was a massive success. He divorced his first wife in 1961 & married Marilyn Munroe, the reason for this is unknown as apparently they were never really in love & divorced in 1963, it is thought Monroe married him for intelligence & milled married Monroe for beauty, Miller then wrote a play â€Å"After The Fall† that is thought to be based on their relationship. Miller died in 2005. Which other plays has Arthur miller written? Do they have any common themes? â€Å"After The Fall†, â€Å"The Prince†, â€Å"The Archbishop’s Ceiling†, â€Å"The Clock†, â€Å"Broken Glass†, â€Å"All My Sons†, â€Å"Death Of A Salesman†, â€Å"Crucible†. A common theme of Arthur Miller’s play was the examining of an individual in relation to their authority; this means the plays are often considered political. Where is Brooklyn? What was it like in the 1940’s? Who lived & worked there? What sort of environment was it? What’s it like now? Brooklyn is a borough of New York; in the 1940s it had a large Italian population due to the ports near the bridge. Brooklyn was split in two it had the middle class areas such as Flatbush & working class areas like Red Hook, the setting for â€Å"A View The Bridge. † In the mid to late 1940s Brooklyn was enjoying a good period the gang violence was, all though easily noticed, small. As Brooklyn reached the end of the 1940s the borough began a period of decline & by the early 1950s gangsters were ripe & until the 1980s it was classed as a bad place to live. People from all over Europe lived & worked in Brooklyn it also had a large African-American community. Brooklyn now has a safer & cleaner track record with very little gang violence & a large business district the 3rd largest in New York State. Which groups of people immigrated to the United States in the 1940’s? What was life like for them when they arrived? The main groups of people immigrating to the United States in the 1940s were European, particularly Italians & Russians. When they first arrived life would be tough they would usually leave their homelands with nothing & have to find jobs & work quickly so they could live out their own â€Å"American Dream†. Find out as much as you can about Italian-American communities†¦ Which television programmes & films include Italian-American characters? How do they talk? Is this community stereotyped? What values can you identify in this community? The most famous film on Italian-Americans would probably be â€Å"Scarface† a movie based on Italian-American gangster Al Capone, the Italian-American community is stereotyped as a very tight family, which it represents in gangs or mobs, the Italian-American dialect is varied through out Brooklyn, Bugs Bunny has an accent based on the Flatbush dialect. Wikipedia – â€Å"Italian Americans are higher in the rate & degree of the tensing & rising of (oh) & (aeh) than that of Jewish American New Yorkers. † The values of the communities of Italian Americans seem as though they all run everything as a family business, & a tight knit friendship group. What is a ‘tragedy’? Find out the main features or conventions of this type of play. Make sure you go right back to Greek tragedy. A Greek tragedy is a form of art portraying human suffering causing audience pleasure this form has been modernised to usually end a play in a death where all characters end in despair, or worse off than they were at the beginning. Alfieri’s first speech. What have we learnt about the people who live in Red Hook? We have learnt from the opening speech from Alfieri that Red Hook was the slum of Brooklyn & the gullet of New York, Red Hook is portrayed as very violent with no care for the law, but it is now ore civilised & getting better, people are no longer as scared as they were, as Alfieri says: â€Å"I no longer feel the need to keep a gun† It shows Red Hook at one time was extremely intimidating & bad but now much better. Alfieri goes onto mention how his relatives often tell him not to get involved with cases, this shows the Italian-American-tight knit-family-like-ness & how his business seems to be everyone’s business. What does Alfieri mean when he says â€Å"justice is very important† here? When Alfieri says â€Å"justice is very important here† he is using a bit of sarcasm he is commenting on how people do feel justice is important but their own personal justice not the government’s justice. & How people can commit murder believing it is all right because of there own justice. However you feel a sense of irony as he is a lawyer speaking & he is discussing justice that he may well deal with in court. The fact he is a lawyer also shows there is work for lawyers in Red Hook so some sort of governed justice is important. Now the people â€Å"settle for half† instead of using a gun for justice, what does that mean? Alfieri’s comment â€Å"now the people settle for half† is commenting on now that Red Hook has been cleaned up a bit his services a called on more & although it means the person against the allegations may not be killed he will be brought to governed justice & possible face prison. Eddie’s story is not like the ‘petty troubles of the poor. ‘ Why might he come to see Alfieri? Eddie’s story is not like the petty troubles of the poor because we realise through out the book that aside from the immigrants in his house being illegal, they have actually done nothing wrong & although his allegations against Rodolfo being gay are also wrong, it is not illegal to be gay. Alfieri also deals mainly in family squabbles, evictions & compensation cases, but Eddie’s is different because it’s more about jealousy & revenge. A view from a bridge work book. (2017, Oct 08).

Environmental issues to International security Essay

Environmental issues to International security - Essay Example ..7 The Kyoto Protocol†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 Climate Stress And Change†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...8 Pollution And Persistent Pollutants †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.10 Deforestation And Desertification†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.11 Invasive Species†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...12 Military Security Implications†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...12 Nuclear Issues†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..13 The Japan Earthquake†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...13 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦14 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦17 Introduction Environmental security is a broad term which does not have a universally acknowledged definition. There are at least four major definition of the term environmental security. The first definition defines environmental security from the standpoint of how one can protect the resources which are available in a particular area. From the perspective of natural resources and ecosystem, the natural resource should be free of contamination, depletion, pollution or other forms of deprivations which are external in nature. The second definition of the term is related to the onus that the security communities of nations have in implementing the standardized environmental norms for its governmental and military operations. There are certain threats such as terrorism and war, which lead to the increase of weapons of mass destruction. Although these can potentially harm the environment greatly, it pales in front of natural disasters, which can have a detrimental effect on environmental security. The Greenhouse Gas proliferation, the destructiveness of Hurricane Katrina, the devastating tsunami which ravaged islands in the Indian Ocean are just a few examples of the effect natural disasters can have on the environment. The third environmental security definition concerns the dynamics between manmade stresses which are exerted on the environment and the eventual conflict these stress causes between the s tates and the individuals. This generally pertains to the governmental interventions with neighboring states in order to prevent the spread of environmental pollutants. Finally the fourth definition of environmental security concerns the amalgamation of the three aforementioned definitions of environmental security into one combined concept which can integrate the essence of environmental security perfectly. Therefore, environmental security is the term which takes in to account the military and governmental threats to environmental protection, the quality of environmental protection policies implemented by the country, and the effective use of resources and collaboration with other states in order to safeguard the environment. UN and Its Role In Environmental Security The United Nations

Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Term Paper Example 1. Supply Chain Problems in Business Organizations The external environment of business corporations is countering large amount of changes in regard to alterations in demand for the products and services by the consumer sphere. Therefore, business organizations feel the requirement of strategizing the business operations in strict adherence to changing market demands. Supplies of goods and services must reach the end consumer on time. Furthermore, the manufacturing and supply chain operations need to be carried out with a focus on the changes in the demand sphere. Absence of demand driven supply chain systems for business organizations tends to make the production activities obsolete, leading to a loss of productivity, profitability, and blockage of working capital (Tai, Ho, and Wu 5397-5398). 2. Concept of Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership or the ability to transform focuses on incorporating a visionary approach in dealing with a change or alteration of the pre sent state of operations or conduct. Such visionary approach implies that the transformational leader focuses on generating key strategies based on objectives the organization is to achieve. A transformational leader is required to work on effective communication to help people working at different levels to receive a clear understanding of their way of approach. Such enhancement of the communication activities helps in generating confidence in the minds of the people to work collaboratively in the atmosphere of change. The change leader is required to reflect on the benefits the people and the concern will accrue in regard to the change process. Such transparency in communication between the leader and the subordinate groups instills confidence and, therefore, motivates the people to work more productively (Chen, Preston, and Xia 258-259). The transformational leader in regard to business organizations is found to incorporate the systems of information technology to enhance the wor king potential of the firm. The incorporation and use of information technology on a mass scale helps the firm to augment the level of resource utilization in achieving key managerial objectives. The transformational leader observes that the use of information technology in regard to business operations helps enhance the skills of the employees and efficiency of business processes. The alignment of information technology with the firm’s operations helps the concern enhance the operational and business processes, helping them to meet market demands effectively. The transformational leader gains efficiency in aligning the information technology incorporated with human and other organizational resources in different departments and levels. Transformational leaders are thereby required to effectively train, and communicate to, the people based on new objectives and skills to be gained to achieve the objectives underlined. Therefore, transformational or change leadership is a dema nd-centric approach which works best when focused on changes or alterations in the market demand for the services or commodities (Grant 471-472; Defee, Stank, Esper, and Mentzer 70). 3. Transformational Leadership in Generating Business Solutions The following segments reflect the transformational activities involved in supply chain systems, which an organizational leader can effectively

GMO foods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GMO foods - Essay Example For instance, GMO foods are harmful to human beings to some extent. Some of the opposing views of GMOs are discussed in subsequent paragraphs. First, GMOs are unhealthy since numerous studies have found that they can leave materials inside the human body hence causing long-term problems (IRT 2). Because of this, doctors advise their patients to take or consume non-GMO diets because they have no effects. For instance, there are pieces of evidence that genes inserted into GM soy can transfer into the DNA of a bacteria living in a human being (IRT 2). Moreover, GMO food increases food allergies among individuals making it unsafe for consumption. Secondly, GMO foods are sourced from herbicides seeds, which are very harmful (IRT 4). GM crops are engineered to be herbicide tolerant hence not prone to weed attack and can survive. Because of this, they contain high chemical concentration, which causes harm to the environment. Moreover, GM food has higher residues of toxic herbicides, which is linked to several defects in the body. For instance, high concentration of herbicides and other chemicals increases one’s chances of getting sterility, hormone disruption, cancer, as well as birth defects when continuously used (IRT 4). Thirdly, GMO involves mixing of genes from different unrelated species making it unleash unpredictable side effects not intended (IRT 6). Many researchers do not know some of the genes inserted or mixed with others to produce the quality that is needed. Therefore, the process of creating or developing a GM plant can result in a collateral damage by producing new toxins, as well as nutritional deficiencies. The natural plants that produce food are naturally modified and have a balanced makeup to provide all the desired nutrients (IRT 6). However, GM foods does not contain balanced nutrient since the composition of the species may differ to interfere with the desired

Research Proposal Letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Research Proposal Letter - Essay Example However, the number of local curbside recycling programs has also increased from 8,875 in 2002 to over 9,000 today, which has led to a 8 million ton reduction in MSW. This indicates that recycling schemes are effective in reducing disposal rates. However, in 2009 only 82 million tons of this total waste was composted or recycled (33.8%). Baksi and Long (2009) therefore claim that effective waste management strategies are crucial if the US government is to: reduce the amount of household waste being disposed of in land fill sites promote the conservation of natural resources though reducing use of virgin materials increase the amount of household waste being recycled maintain public support decrease the levels of environmental damage caused by landfill sites I therefore believe that recycling issues need to gain serious priority on the government’s agenda and I recommend introducing disposal fees such as ‘unit based pricing systems’ for financing residential trash collection. This is because at the moment many households have zero economic incentive to recycle because they pay for their waste collection and disposal services through general taxation and a fixed rate, thereby undervaluing the price of waste disposal.

Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Reflection - Essay Example It is a cause of worry since organizations must have continuity in good leadership to be able to maintain its productivity. An organization is safer when it adopts risk prevention measures, and equips current and future leaders with skills necessary to cope with any organizational changes. There are both formal and informal leaders. They all influence an organization towards achieving its goals effectively. Organizational success goes beyond an individual leaders will to achieve and the organizations chain of command. Most importantly, it is how all leaders relate together towards achievement of set goals. This is termed as collective leadership as William (2011) observes. In addition, James and Barry (2001) suggest that several things should be considered. They include: the number of leaders needed currently and expected in the future by an organization. This enables an organization base its leadership strategies on the expected turnover of employees in the organization. Leadership culture entails how leadership is practiced for example employee relations, discharge of duties and working together for a common purpose. The culture ensures that all factors affecting growth and performance of the enterprise are pooled together towards the same set targets. Demand and supply forecasting is crucial in ensuring the number of leaders employed is specific to the present and future expected needs Another factor to consider is the quality of leaders desired. Every organization must aim at employing high quality leaders for a competitive organization. Phillip (2010) sees a leader as a person who owns and takes responsibility for every action an organization takes and feels any loss incurred as his own. For organizational success, there must be leaders who are goal oriented and put all their effort and hard work to ensuring achievement of goals and

Reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Reflection paper - Essay Example The politics in California have been and is strongly influenced by finances. Inadequacy of provisions that govern campaign, and election finance is a threat to democracy. It exposes the government and political parties to scandals and blackmails by private corporations that may be willing to finance campaigns so they may earn some favors from resulting government. This paper explores shortcomings of election finance provisions and the impending threat to democracy. Money has done much for California politics by making fundraising an acceptable evil. The political class may be the beneficiaries of such insufficiency of the law in the sense that, as it is now, campaign funding and fundraising provisions do not favor persons without connections and money to spend. This discourages participation. This paper will also explore the political class unwillingness to enact serious laws to reduce the influence justice in politics. According to federalism Fundraising (lobbying for the financial donation) remain the primary source of campaign money in California. The Political Action Committee collects funds from donors and spends them on behalf of the candidate. Since American politics is closely related to finance and no campaign, money means no vote, individuals, and political parties are advancing in method of appealing for funding by wealthy individuals and organization. In 2004, Howard Dean used the Internet to mobilize civilians for funding. This might have changed fundraising approach in America for good -which is much important than manifestos. Candidates have started using the latest technology called the Microtargeting- that has the capability to target only potential donors. (Washington Post) This show how important money is treated in politics. Raising more money increases the chances of obtaining votes as observed in 2012 presidential and Senate

Society originates Essay Example for Free

Society originates Essay Kallipolis now has three classes, the producers, the Guardians and the Philosopher-Kings and each member will perform that function, and only that function, for which he is destined by nature30. To distinguish between these classes and discover to which class each person belongs Plato brings in education and also his theory of a tripartite soul. Through this education process which is a concern of the state31 , all people reach their full potential and thereby acknowledge their social position. To understand the nature of the philosopher kings we examine Platos theory of the soul. There are three types of desire in the tripartite soul which correspond to the three parts of the state32; appetitive desires (base ones for things such as food, money and sex), spirited desires (for honour, victory and reputation) and rational desires (for knowledge and truth). In each person one of the three desires rules, thereby determining their class and values. Uneducated people are ruled by their appetites and although they can be trained through physical education and a mix of reading, writing, dance and song33 they will only have acquired a level of virtue to act prudently34. This is the producer classes. For these money is the best way of satisfying their desires. Further education leaves people ruled by their spirited desires35; this is the Guardian class that want honour. They are more virtuous than the producers but not as virtuous as the philosopher kings. Those that make it right through the education system are the philosopher kings who are bound by rational desires of the soul. They are fully virtuous and knowledgeable36 and C. Reeve argues that the education process will make them distribute the benefits of this knowledge among the citizens whilst ruling. There are other proposals for the production of citizens of the right sort including restriction of the arts, the institution of mating festivals and private property is to be abolished37 (for the two higher classes so they can focus solely on their function as rulers). Plato states the philosophers are above any corruption due to their education and training which makes them designed solely to govern and it means they possess knowledge and understanding no one else in the city does. They will not be corrupted by ruling because they recognise that others, lacking their knowledge, would do a worse job than themselves. It is a duty they must perform, to spend the rest of their time doing what they really want to do philosophical research. Plato also sets down strict guidelines for the guardians way of life, especially the absence of family life and private property which he considers the greatest temptation in public life. Plato has two ways to further explain this division of class to the reader and the people within the state. The first is the allegory of the Cave. To understand this we have to understand the forms of the good38. Kraut defines them as eternal, changeless, imperceptible and bodiless objects a pre-eminent good39 which will improve our lives we if understand and love them. Those that discover these forms, the philosophers, will attain complete happiness and will have a duty to relate these forms back to society. All mankind is situated within the cave and are all initially chained to the wall, seeing shadows of the forms which they believe are the real things. Those that break free, the philosophers, are free from illusion40 and see not only the form of the good. They are able to exit the cave and see this light and have a duty to bring it back to society. The other story is the myth of the metals41, often known as the noble lie42. The tale goes that when each person was fashioned by the gods a metal was added to each person which qualifies their social class. Those with gold in them are rulers, silver in the auxiliaries and iron and bronze in the producers. Within each class however children can be born with a higher/lower metal in their souls than their parents. When this happens they are to be promoted/demoted to their proper class43. This myth was propagated to serve to increase their (civilians) loyalty to the state and to each other44 and to persuade people to accept their social class as their destiny and therefore not to challenge it. The Economic classes should therefore take this rule without demur as the relationship of classes, like everything else in the state is perfect45. It promotes the fact that there are natural differences between human beings46 and that through education these metals can be ascertained and streamlined. However as a Christian I do not believe Platos view, that the philosopher king should rule, is correct. There are several reasons for this. The first is education does not necessarily make anyone more virtuous than others. The Bible states that all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God47 and this is shown in practise today by the fact that the educated rulers can be corrupt, unfaithful to their wives and motivated by money/involved in bribery. Since the Bible tells us that we all are selfish by nature, and education cannot remove this, we should not expect the rulers to solely put the needs of others above their own desires for power, wealth, property and status, however noble that may be. The taking away of the family from the philosopher class would also in my opinion make him a worse ruler, less in touch with society and less developed as a character. Also from a secular viewpoint it is not right to put only educated rulers from one strata of society in power when those from a less education background could be more in touch with society and its needs. Also the prospect of a state education system selecting the leaders of the city is a matter of concern as the relevant knowledge which Plato advocates is purely a matter of opinion and therefore may be biased. Also these rational desires, that the philosopher king is supposed to have, are not I believe the monopoly of the educated. They can be found at all levels of society. Also Plato denies personal advancement in his city, especially once a person has been graded. In reality however once people have met their basic needs there is a desire for more. Also it is not natural for people to forgo private property even if they are a ruler. Therefore I would conclude that Platos view, that the philosopher kings should rule, is incorrect and unrealistic in terms of any real society and its values.2,045 words. Bibliography TEXT USED Plato, The Republic, Penguin Classics 2nd edition 1987 OTHER WORKS David Reece, Plato in Political Thinkers, pp 54-72 Edward Andrew, Equality of opportunity as the noble lie History of Political Thought X, 4 (1989), pp 577-596 Rex Martin, The ideal state in Platos Republic History of Political Thought II,1 (1981) P1-30 Richard Kraut, The defence of justice in Platos Republic The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge 1992, pp311-337 Christopher Rowe, Plato: the search for an ideal form of state Plato to Nato (1990), BBC books. Timothy Shiell, The Unity of Platos Political Thought History of Political Though XII,3 (1991) pp377-390 1 Plato, The Republic, P 56 Quote of a sub title 2 Rex Martin, The Ideal State in Platos Republic P1 3 Plato The Republic P56, Quote from Editor, Desmond Lee 4 Ibid P58 5 Ibid P59 6 Ibid P60 7 Ibid P60 8 Ibid P61 9 Ibid P61 10 Ibid P61 11 Ibid P61 12 IbidP62 13 Ibid P62 14 Plato The Republic P62 15 Ibid P63 16 Ibid P63 17 Rex, Martin The Ideal State In Platos Republic, P2 18 Plato, The Republic P63 19 Ibid P64 20 Ibid P64 21 Plato, The Republic, P65. 22 Ibid P66 23 Ibid P67 24 Ibid P66 25 Ibid P68 26 Ibid P121 27 Ibid P121 28 Christopher Rowe, From Plato to Nato P23 29 Plato, The Republic P119 30 Christopher Rowe, From Plato to Nato P23 31 Ibid P70 32 Christopher Rowe, From Plato to Nato P23 33 C. D Reeve in Political Thinkers An overview of the Republic 34 C. D Reeve in Political Thinkers An overview of the Republic P3 of article 35 Ibid P3 36 C. D Reeve in Political Thinkers An overview of the Republic 37 Christopher Rowe, From Plato to Nato P24 38 Plato, The Republic, P239. 39 Richard Kraut, The defence of justice in the Republic, The Cambridge companion to Plato 40 C. D Reeve in Political Thinkers An overview of the Republic 41 Plato, The Republic, P213 42 Edward Andrew, Equality of Opportunity as the Noble Lie P 577 43 R. Martin, The Ideal State In Platos Republic P10 44 Plato, The Republic P123 45 R. Martin, The Ideal State in Platos Republic P 9 46 Edward Andrew, Equality of Opportunity as the Noble Lie P1 47 Bible, NIV Romans 3 v 23 GV100 Introduction to Political Theory, Essay No 1 Name: Sarah Pickwick Class: 7 Teacher: Mr J Olsson.

Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumers

Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumers 1.1 Research Background and Motivations Throughout the history of cosmetics (Appendice B), substances of all sort were utilised to produce products to enhance beauty and social lives, however with time certain substances were found to be hazardous, dangerous and poisoness. The cosmetic industry of the twenty-first century has evolved to adopt a more structured model of regulations in regards to which substances may and may not be utilised in the manufacturing of products. However, it is an industry that has become accountable to consumers and society in terms of how the products are produced (Eg. No testing on animals, chemical free, etc) and the effects of these products on consumers, society and our environment. Thus, CSR is becoming a vital issue in determining a companys performance and how it manages its economic, social and environmental impacts, as well as its contribution to society. CSR can be best explained as business practices or strategies that has the aim of satisfying the financial interests of organisations while positively impacting society (Foran et al., 2005). Though, CSR may involve certain investments for an organisation, it can also provide a source of opportunity and may; in certain circumstances; lead to building and sustaining competitive advantage. Many research on CSR has focused on the organisational business side and few have focused on the influence of CSR on consumers. However, consumers are essential to the success of CSR and understanding their attitudes towards CSR can enable companies to determine if their CSR business strategies are efficient, and the extent to which consumers are affected by these. Companies have also realised that consumers are making consumption decisions based on their personal ethical values, and according to Tallontire et al. (2001) ethics in consumption choices has become a growing phenomenon that underpins ethical trade activities. Many studies by scholars and practitioners when identifying and assessing the components of CSR, often refer to Archie B. Carrolls CSR pyramid (Ibrahim Parsa, 2005; Schwartz Carroll, 2003). However, there is very limited research in regards to the concept of CSR relating to that of consumer behaviour, and more precisely taking into account factors such as consumers attitudes and ethical beliefs. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide a better understanding of the concept and role of CSR, and explore how it is applied by the main local players within the CCI in France. The study focuses on examining the extent to which CSR affects consumers attitudes, and how their ethical beliefs may influence their attitudes towards CSR. 1.2 Context of the Problem Defining the problem is one of the most important steps in the research process and enables to indentify the specific marketing decision area that will be clarified by answering some research questions (Koerner 2006; Zikmund 1989). Growing pressure from governments, NGOs and consumer movements for companies to account for their impact of business operations on society and the environment; has lead more companies to invest in CSR initiatives and in managing more efficiently their SRI. However the issue arises in understanding whether consumers are actually aware of CSR practices adopted by companies, to which extent do they consider these when making a purchase decision, how are their attitudes affected, and in which manner do their ethical beliefs play a role in their decision making and their perception of CSR. 1.3 Research Aims and Objectives 1.3.1 Aims The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the role of CSR and its affect on consumers attitudes and ethical beliefs, within the CCI in France. The study also aims to determine if an association exists between CSR, consumers attitudes and ethical beliefs, and whether this may have an influence on consumers purchase behaviour. 1.3.2 Objectives Research Objectives provide guidelines in determining which steps must be undertaken in the research and if objectives are achieved the research information is considered sufficient to solve the problem (Hair et al. 2006). The main objectives of this research are the following : (1) To provide facts about the demographic characteristics of consumers who purchase colour cosmetics, as well as insights into their purchase behaviour, (2) To provide a better understanding of the role of CSR and examine the different frameworks, approaches to CSR, (3) To explore to which extent CSR affects consumers attitudes and whether consumers ethical beliefs plays a role, (4) To examine if relationships exists between consumers attitudes, ethical beliefs and Carolls four dimensions of CSR, (5) To determine what are the factors and information sources considered important when judging a company, and; (6) To determine what are the social issues consumers are most concerned about. 1.4 Hypotheses The previous research objectives constitute the basis for establishing the hypotheses of the study in order to measure the effect of CSR on ethical beliefs and consumers attitudes within the Colour Cosmetics industry in France: H1. There exists a positive relationship between Ethical beliefs and Awareness of CSR H2. There exists a positive relationship between Ethical beliefs and Feelings towards companies adopting CSR H3. There exists a positive relationship between Ethical beliefs and Considering CSR in purchase decision H4. There exists a positive relationship between Ethical beliefs and Ethical purchase behaviour H5. There exists a positive relationship between the Affective component of attitudes and Awareness of CSR H6. There exists a positive relationship between the Affective component of attitudes and Considering CSR in purchase decision H7. There exists a positive relationship between the Affective component of attitudes and Ethical purchase behaviour H8. There exists a positive relationship between the Cognitive component of attitudes and Considering CSR in purchase decision H9. There exists a positive relationship between the Cognitive component of attitudes and Ethical purchase behaviour The development of these hypothesis will be reviewed in Chapter 3, Section 3.6 of this dissertation. 1.5 Scope and Limitations This dissertation will cover the concept of CSR and will investigate the relationship between CSR and consumers attitudes and ethical beliefs. The study will also providing a brief overview of the main companies present in the local French market, and the extent to which they adopt CSR policies. The sample unit is limited to that of French consumers, having the following characteristics : female consumers , above the age of 18 years old and residing in France. Consideration must be taken that the author has attempted to present references the most frequently cited in the literature reviewed. The author attempts to make the link between the concept of CSR and consumers attitudes and ethical beliefs, hence for the purpose of this study, the models applied have been limited to that of the CSR Pyramid Model proposed by Carroll (1979) , and the Tricomponent Attitude Model. However, there is very limited research that exists linking these two models, and thus the literature reviewed may be limited in certain areas. 1.6 Organisation of the thesis The dissertation was divided into six chapters: Chapter One, provides the significance of the study, context of the problem, aims and objectives, states the hypotheses, scope and limitations of the study, and the present organisation of the thesis. Chapter Two, presents facts and informations issued from the secondary and exploratory research in regards to the CCI, and CSR practices of the main players within the local French market. Chapter Three, consists of a review of relevant literature and theoretical models in regards to the concept of CSR, implementing and measuring performance of CSR. It will also provide relevant literature reviewed in regards to linking CSR to consumer attitudes, and thus will also address the theory of attitudes, through the Tricomponent Attitude Model. Chapter Four, presents the research philosophy, research methodology and methods adopted for collecting, analysing and discussing the relevant data obtained for the purpose of this study. The design and implementation of the questionnaire survey, and the reliability, validity, limitations and ethics of the research will also be adressed. Chapter Five presents research findings in regards to primary data collection, and presents the results regarding the validity of the stated hypotheses. Chapter Six, provides the final conclusions of the study conducted, limitations and future recommendations. References, bibliograpgy, appendices, s, graphs and tables follow Chapter Six. chapter 2 : colour cosmetics industry review This chapter will define cosmetics in the context of this dissertation and will also present an overview of the CCI in France (section 2.2, and Appendice C), as well as its main players (Section, 2.3 and Appendice D). CSR practices adopted by the main local players and whether these companies provide a CSR policy will also be addressed. 2.1 Defining Cosmetics According to the current EU legislation cited in Morganti Paglialunga (2008), a cosmetic product is ‘any substance or preparation intended to be placed in contact with the various external parts of the human body with a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their appearance and/or correcting body odours and/or protecting them or keeping them in good condition. The word ‘cosmetic in greek derives from the word ‘kosmetikos and the meaning allocated is ‘to make for beauty, especially of the complexion, or beautifying. The meaning over time has evolved into that of ‘ masking, concealing, cover up or that of camouflaging . Cosmetics consists of products such as personal care creams, makeup, perfumes, deodorant, shampoos, etc. The term ‘make-up is more often used when speaking of colour cosmetics and according to Oumeish (2001) means ‘to use cosmetics and apply them to color and beautify the face, and to other parts of the body. This dissertation will be focusing on the Category of Colour Cosmetics, which involves: (1) facial make-up, (2) eye make-up, (3) lip products, and (4) nail products. 2.2 Colour Cosmetics Industry in France The French Colour Cosmetic dominates the European market and 15,7% of the European market value. It holds the second largest market value in Europe behind that of the United Kingdom. (Euromonitor International, 2009). The local French market is largely dominted by major players such as LOreal SA that holds 38,80% of total market shares, followed by Chanel S.A with 13,40% and LVMH Moet Hennessy Louis Vitton S.A with 9,40% of market shares (Datamonitor, 2008). Other players present in the local market include Estee Lauder, Beiersdorf-Nivea Beautà ©, Clarins S.A, Coty, Yves Rocher, and Shiseido. (Appendice C) The colour cosmetic market consists of 4 subsectors, that of (1) facial make-up, (2) eye make-up, (3) lip products and (4) nail products. The facial make-up category dominates the sector with 36,40% of market value, followed by eye make-up with 34,40%, lip make-up with 19,70% and nail make-up with 9,40%. The fastest growing category in 2008 were facial make-up which had a growth of 4% and eye make-up, by 3% (Euromonitor International, 2008 2009). According to Datamonitor report (2008), distribution of products are mainly through Supermarkets/Hypermarkets, with 45,7% and specialised retailers with 39,5% of the markets distribution, and other channels of distribution represent 14.8%. Many French women are now more inclined to mix premium and mass brands (Euromonitor International, 2009). However with increase awareness of consumers attitudes towards toxic chemicals having negative aspects on health, the premium segment is becoming more popular amongst females who are in search of more safe to use products, and environemntally friendly. The legal environment also oversees the French industry by adopting strict regulations towards ingredients which are allowed to be utilised in the cosmetic product, or those that may be considered dangerous in regards to health aspects. Examples such as adoption of Directives 93/35/CEE (1993), Directives CEE (2004), European International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients. Since 2009, the European Union has also put legilsatives in place banning animal testing within the E.U and also sale of any product that has been prior tested on animals (Kumar, 2005). 2.3 Colour Cosmetic Companies and CSR Practices The following will provide a brief overview of the 3 major colour cosmetic players in France (LOreal, Chanel and LVMH), and discuss whether these companies have adopted CSR activities within their business strategy, and will state if a formal (written, printable report of their CSR policy) or informal CSR policy (only available on their corporate website) has been adopted. Other players present in the local market such as Estee Lauder, Beiersdorf-Nivea Beautà ©, Clarins S.A, Coty, Yves Rocher, and Shiseido, are also presenetd, in Appendice D of this dissertation. LOreal S.A In France, LOreal S.A accounts for 38,80% of total market shares (Datamonitor 2008). It is the worlds second largest manufacturer of cosmetics and toiletries. LOreal operates through three business divisions: cosmetics, the Body Shop, and dermatology. Its main colour cosmetic brands are : LOreal Paris, Gemey Maybelline Garnier, Lancome and The Body shop. LOreal acquired The Body Shop in March 2006, which enabled to position itself in the ethical cosmetics market, to reinforce this positionment. LOreal also acquired a leading french company Sanoflore, which is specialised in organic cosmetics. This strategy enables LOreal to develop into the organic and natural cosmetics market (Euromonitor International, 2009). LOreal invests largely in CSR practices, and provides a formal CSR policy which enables to support its disclosure and transparency to the public in regards to its business operations. LOreal addresses an extensive lists of social and ethical issues such as contributing to the society and community, addressing issues of sustainability, preserving the environment, labour and human rights, actions against animal testing, donating to charities and natural disasters, developing education, supporting medical research, adopting ethical standards throughout the entire company and subsidaires, its employees and having strict ethical requirements for its suppliers. Chanel S.A was established in 1924 by Coco Chanel, and is owned by the Swiss company Pamerco. It is a privately held company and is not obligated to release any financial results. It is specialised in a wide range of products such as fashion, watches, eye wear, fragrances and beauty products. In France, Chanel S.A accounts for 13,40% of total market shares in the cosmetics market. It operates in Europe, Asia and USA (Datamonitor 2008), with the highest shares of market value in that of Western Europe (Euromonitor International 2009). Its colour cosmetic products are distributed unders the brands Bourjois and that of Chanel. In order to improve financial results due to the economic downturn, community projects such as ‘Mobile Art Tour have been stopped in order to focus investments on other strategies. However, no information in concerns to CSR practices nor that of any formal CSR policy was publicly available on their corporate website. However, it cannot be assumed that they do not invest in CSR, but may have chosen not to make publicly available their CSR policies. LVMH Moet Hennessy Louis Vitton S.A Is an international group of companies with principal activities focused on the production and sale of luxury goods. Its main divisions are : wines and spirits, fashion and leather goods, fragrances and cosmetics, jewelry and selective retailing sectors. LVMH operates about 1,859 stores worldwide (Datamonitor 2008). In France, LVMH group accounts for 9,40% of total market shares in the colour cosmetics market (Datamonitor 2008). Its main brands in the colour cosmetic segment include : Christian Dior, Guerlain, , Hard Candy, Benefit Cosmetics, Urban Decay, Fresh, Make Up for Ever and Dior Addict. (Datamonitor, 2009, LVMH Group 2009). LVMH adopts an informal CSR policy which is publicly available on their corporate website. The company is largely invested in the french community and believes in promoting french culture, art and heritage. It allocates important investments towards community projects, and is involved in many initiatives to promote french cultural heritage. chapter 3: literature review and theoretical framework 3.1 The Concept of CSR The section 3.1 will provide the literature review in regards to the background of CSR, its purpose, how CSR is defined, implementing CSR and monitor CSP, as well as the criticism of the concept. It will also focus on presenting the different dimensions of CSR through Carrolls CSR Pyramid Model (1979). 3.1.1 Background of CSR During the eighteenth century companies took little responsibility for their impact of business operations. According to writings of the Scottish philosopher of the eighteenth century, Adam Smith (1776) many corporations limited their operations according to the rules of pure competition. This gradually evolved and companies started taking full responsibility for their business impact on society, the community and the economy. Many academics believe that the roots of CSR originated from nineteenth century U.S industrialist, Andrew Carnegie, in his writings from the ‘Gospel of wealth, where he was the first to express publicly his beliefs that that the most fortunate members of society should ensure that money was used to aspire the less fortunate members (Carnegie Corporation New York). The early twentieth century, saw businesses adopt more responsibility in regards to society and the community which was mainly represented by CP. According to Carroll (1999), and Hopkins (1999) cited in Leal (2007), the discussion about SR of businesses began to become more prominent from the 1930s, with authors like Chester Barnard, J.M Clark, Theodore Kreps and Merick Dodd. Prior to the 1960s, business ethics was rather left to theologians to discuss issues of fair wages, unfair labor practices, and the morality of capitalism (Lantos, 2001). From the 1960s, companies were more focusing on generating profits that outweighted largely over moral principles. It was during this era that consumers began to manifest their mecontentment against unethical business behaviour. During the 1960s Milton Friedman, Nobel Prize winner in economics in 1976, raised an issue by stating that the ‘only obligation a business had was to generate profits for its sharehlders. It was only during the 1970s, that the concept evolved when CP was supplemented by corporate initiatives and activities, and businesses taking a more responsible attitude towards societal needs. It was considered that companies should not pursue profit without taking into consideration business ethics, acting in a social responsible manner and being a good corporate citizen. In the 1980s, R. Edward Freeman (in contrast to the views by Milton Friedman), argued on the issue that CSR is a question of managing stakeholders, and that values and ethics are necessarily a part of doing business. The last decades, growing interest has been more towards environmental issues (Eg. Global warming, climate change, pollution index, etc), and how companies are addressing such issues through adoption of sustainable development. 3.1.2 CSR in France In France, the concept of CSR surfaced during the late nineteenth century. Early twentieth century, professional organisations as well as commercial undertakings have been adopting texts containing social standards that employers must observe (Segal et al., 2003). During the 1980s, the concept was mainly issued from the idea to combine economic and social policy, and on the basis of promoting the concept of the ‘corporate citizen. There was great involvement on the part of undertakings in civic life, such as lobbying to exert an influence on the decisions made by the public authorities or providing sponsorship to support social, cultural and sporting activities (Segal et al. , 2003). According to Segal et al. (2003), the CSR movement from the United States did not reach France until the early 1990s, however, companies in France referred more to the term ‘corporate citizenship (in french ‘citoyennetà © dentreprise), which was more familiar to them, than CSR. Due to cultural differences, some aspects of the CSR concept as it was constructed by Anglo-American background, did not adapt well into the French cultural landscape, such as the idea that all stakeholders should be taken into account, or the fact of a responsibility that merely complements that of companies. This is explained by the fact that the State and the Law are regarded as the only guarantors of a principle of SR that applies to all, whereas initiatives emanating from civil society are perceived as campaigns and suspected of concealing vested interests (Segal et al. ,2003). CSR, in France is exercised within an increasingly precise legal framework, particularly because the law encourages undertakings to adopt standards of SR. It is a frequent custom for the people in France, to turn to the public authorities demanding that they ‘face up to their responsibilities and lay down the laws recognising a new social problem and addressing it, rather than provide laws that define minimal thresholds for companies (Segal et al., 2003). 3.1.3 The Purpose of CSR With the increasingly pressure received from Governments, NGOs, consumer movements, activists, shareholders, the public and the media has lead companies to account for their social and environmental impacts of their activities. As a result the twenty-first century is seeing CSR emerging as an important area in business strategies. Advocates of CSR have used four main arguments to justify the reason for CSR : (1) moral obligation of companies in adopting an ethical and responsible behaviour; (2) sustainability in terms of the TBL, (3) license to operate in terms of companies identifying social issues important to stakeholders and taking approrpiate related decisions, and (4) reputation by investing in cause-related marketing campaigns (Porter Kramer, 2006). Porter Kramer (2002), also suggest that CSR practices can provide economic benefits if the social improvement has been related to the companys business. Companies often willingly engage in socially responsible behaviour because it enhances shareholder value by keeping a business on the right side of the law (Martin, 2002). Companies can serve shareholder interests while also serving those of a larger community. Most CSR practices implemented by firms are largely based on Philanthropy activities, and used as a purpose to promote the the corporate image. It can also contribute to improving the community by developing education, health, provide safe products, preserve the environment, improve employment, and on the long-term can aid in building strong ties with governments, official organisations, partnerships, and build trust within the community. According to Burke and Logsdon (1996, p. 496), ‘CSR (policy, program or process) is strategic when it yields substantial business-related benefits to the firm, in particular by supporting core business activities and thus contributing to the firms effectiveness in accomplishing its mission. 3.1.4 Defining CSR There is no formal universal definition of the concept of CSR. Many believe it concerns what corporations give back to society in return from the benefits they have gained, others tend to believe it is based on how ethically corporations behave, towards society and the environment, and in regards to its stakeholders. Often, CSR is also referred to as the ‘triple bottom line in which it refers to the corporations financial, social, and environmental performance in conducting its business. There have been numerous attempts by organisations, institutions, corporate executives and academics to clarify the constructs and concept of CSR (Dahlsrud, 2008, Lantos 2001, Tywoniak Bartlett, 2008, Van Marrewijk 2003, 2005), resulting in many definitions towards a more humane, more ethical and transparent way of doing business (Van Marrewijk 2003, 2005). Prior research by Dahlsrud (2008), reveal that there is not ‘one standard definition of CSR but that a variety of definitions exist. In his research he anyalysed 37 definitions of CSR, and results showed that, even though most definitions are different from one another textually, they are nevertheless constantly referring to the the same five dimensions: (1) environmental, (2) social, (3) economic, (4) stakeholder and (5) voluntariness. Davis (1975) describes that SR implies that companies should not only make a decision based on their own interest but are also obliged to take actions that protect and enhance societys interests. According to Sethi (1975) the concept of CSR has different meanings according to time and the cultural context and is more based on the corporate actions that enable to determine whether corporations are meeting societal expectations. According to Carroll Schwartz (2003), definitions of CSR fall into two general schools of thought, those that argue that business is obligated only to maximise profits while respecting the legal requirements and minimal ethical constraints (Friedman 1970, Levitt, 1958), and those that believe corporations are accountable on how they conduct their business toward society. CSR is concerned with businesses being morally accountable to its stakeholders, and thus that values are necessarily and explicitly a part of doing business (Freeman, et al. ,2004), and that it is a voluntary commitment by companies to exceed the explicit and implicit obligations imposed on them by societys expectations of conventional corporate behavior (Falck Heblich (2007) Others such as Davies (1960), Andrews (1973), McWilliams and Siegel (2001), Kotler and Lee (2005) refer to CSR as being an obligation to improve community well-being through transparent business practices, contribution of corporate resources, corporate decision making and actions extending beyond the firms direct economic or technical interest, and that which is required by law. In this context, CSR can therefore be seen as the voluntary assumption of responsabilities beyond that of just economic or legal (McGuire, 1963). Authoritive institutions have also attempted to define CSR. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000, p.3) defined CSR as : ‘ the continuing commitment by business to contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the community and society at large. The European Trade Union (2004, p.1), on the other hand, defines CSR as ‘companies integrating social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. And on its part, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develpment (OECD) on their website, describe CSR as : ‘The most important contribution of business is the conduct of business itself, and its core responsibility is to yield competitive returns to shareholders by identifying and developing promising investment opportunities and must comply with legal requirements and, respond to societal expectations not written down in law books. 3.1.4.1 Carrolls CSR Pyramid Model For the purpose of this dissertation, the author has chosen to focus on Carrolls Pyramid Model ( 3.1) in order to identify the main dimensions of CSR. Carrolls Pyramid Model was selected on the basis that it seems to be the framework the most frequently referred to in the literature reviewed, in terms of managing social issues. In Carroll (1979, 1991 2000), Carroll Schwartz (2003) CSR, is defined as: ‘The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary (philanthropic) expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in time. The following sections will provide an overview of each individual dimensions of Carrolls CSR Pyramid Model. 3.1.4.1.1 Economic Responsibilities The environment of global trade is becoming a more competitive arena and faces economic challenges (Kehoe (1998), cited in Carroll, 2000, p.35), and thus, the economic responsibility of business remains very important (Carroll, 2000). Companies business operations contribute largely to the economic unit in society. It has the responsibility to produce goods and services that society wants and to sell them at a profit, and all other business roles are predicated on this major assumption (Carroll, 1979). Economic responsibilities is characterised by companies willingness to perform in a manner consistent with maximising earnings per share, must be committed to being as profitable as possible, must maintain a high level of operating efficiency and competitive positioning and that the success of the company be defined as being consistently profitable (Carroll, 1991). 3.1.4.1.2 Legal Responsibilities Society expects business to achieve its economic operations within the framework of legal requirements. It goes on the assumption that economic responsibilities and legal responsibilities coexist and must be met simultaneously, as they represent fundamental precepts of the free enterprise system (Carroll, 1979, 1991). According to Carroll (1991), legal responsibilities can be viewed as codified ethics in the sense that they integrate the basic notions of fair operations as established by lawmakers, and are characterised by companies performing in a manner that is expected of them by government and law, and thus, that the success of the company is defined as one that fulfills its legal obligations, and to provide goods and services that meet legal requirements (Carroll, 1991). Accordoing to Carroll (1991), the Economic and the legal responsibilities are the most important components in the Pyramid Model. However, this may cause confusion when applying the framework as both components are located at the very bottom of the Pyramid. (Carroll Schwartz, 2003) 3.1.4.1.3 Ethical Responsibilities In addition to fulfilling their economic and legal responsibilities, businesses are expected to fulfill ethical responsibilities as well (Carroll 1979). ‘Ethics, are the driving forces behind every creation of laws or regulation, there are not necessarily codified into laws but are expected by society (Carroll, 1970), and concerns standards, norms, or expectations that reflect a concern for what consumers, employees, shareholders, and the community regard as fair, just, or in keeping with the respect or protection of stakeholders moral rights (Carroll, 1991). Carroll (1991), describes that the main components of ethical responsibilities of companies are to perform in a manner consistent with expectations of societal norms mores and ethical norms; to recognise and respect new or evolving ethical/moral norms adopted by society; to prevent ethical norms from being compromise